
Class _SB_Jl£ 
Book ^a^t^ 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 





Harriet says that a book, like an orchard, needs a 
promising- outlook. How will this do? 







Fruit and Orchard Gleanings 

From Bough to Basket 

Gathered and Packed Into Book Form 

BY 

JACOB BIGGLE 

ILLUSTRATED 



*'P/ant fruit trees. ^ Who plants and tends a tree hath 

part in God's oivn ivork, and makes the 

earth more beautiful.'''' 



Philadelphia 

WILMER ATKINSON CO. 

1906 






LIBRARY of CONGRESS 

Two CoDies Received 

DFr 81 )-^06 

Copyrient Entry 

CLASS /\ XXc, No. 

COPY By 



Copyright, 1906 
WiLMER Atkinson Co. 



ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOR. 



( Special Note : All colored pictures are two-thirds 
natural size.) 



Apples. 




Mountain Rose, . Plate XII. 


Baldwin, .... 


Plate V. 


Oldmixon Free, . 


" XII. 


Ben Davis, ■ • • 




III. 


Salway, 


" XII. 


King, 




II. 


Smock Free, . . 


" XVIII 


Maiden's Blush, 




X. 


Pears. 




Northern Spy. • 




VIII. 


Anjou, . . . . Plate XV. 


Oldenburg, . • - 




X. 


Bartlett, .... 


" XIII. 


Ranibo, .... 




II. 


Duchess, . . . 


" XV. 


Rhode Island 










Greening, 




III. 


Flemish Beauty, 


" XVII. 


Smith's Cider, . 




I. 


Kieffer, .... 


" XVII. 


Smokehouse, . . 




I. 


Seckel, 


" XIII. 


Snow, 




IX. 


Sheldon, .... 


" XIII. 


Stayman 






Plums. 




Winesap, 




IV. 






Twenty Ounce, . 




IV. 


Bradshaw, . . Plate XIV. 


Yellow Newtown 






Burbank 


XIV. 








Coe's Golden 




(or Albermarle 






Drop, 


" XX. 


Pippin), .... 




V. 


Damson, .... 


" XIV. 


York Imperial, . 




VIII. 


German Prune, . 


" XX. 


Cherries. 




Green Gage, • . 


" XX. 








Kelsey, 


" XX. 


Black Tartarian, 


Plate XI. 


lyombard, .... 


" XX. 


Montmorency, . 




XI. 


Red June, ... 


" XIV. 


Napoleon, .... 




XI. 


Yellow Kgg, • • 


" XIV. 


Nuts. 




Miscellane 


ous. 


Paragon 

Chestnuts, 


Plate XVT. 


Effects of Pear 










I,eaf -blight, • . Pi 


ate VII. 


Peaches. 




San Jose on 










Apple, 


" VII. 


Crawford's I,ate, 


Plate XIX. 


Pear, 


" VII. 


Elberta, 


" 


XIX. 


Sprayed and Un- 




Globe 




XVIII. 


sprayed Fruit, 


" VI. 



PREFACE. 




The writing- of this little book has surely been a 
labor of love. Harriet and I love trees. They are 
our pets, and we 
think as much of 
them as we do of the 
animals and birds on 
the farm. 

It had sometimes 
occurred to me that a 
need existed in this 
country for a simple, 
practical, inexpen- 
sive, boiled-down yet complete, printed talk on the 
subject of tree fruits, — a talk that would help the 
amateur as well as the more experienced orchardist. 
My publishers encouraged the idea, saying that 
requests for such a treatise had often been received 
at their office during the past few years. Well — to 
make a long story short — this book is largely the 
result of their encouragement and kindness ; without 
such helps I very much doubt whether the idea ever 
would have materialized into clear type. 

Harriet has helped me, too — bless her heart. So 
have Tim and Farmer Vincent. And so have the 
artists, designers, engravers and photographers who 
are connected with the Wilmer Atkinson Co. 

Yes, and my thanks go out, also, to the various 
practical fruit men, government experts, and writers, 
whose helpful suggestions, letters, pictures and 

(7) 



8 BIGGI.E: ORCHARD BOOK 

bulletins have been of aid to me in the preparation 
of this volume. At times, too, I have been glad to 
consult Prof. Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horti- 
culture, Thomas' American Fruit Culturist, Barry's 
Fruit Garden, and other standard reference books. 
And I am indebted to H. W. Collingwood, Editor of the 
Rural New-Yorker, for permission to reproduce the 
excellent dwarf pear photo-engraving in Chapter XV; 
and to K. B. Harriman, of the Pilgrim Magazine, 
Battle Creek, Mich., for his courtesy in allowing me 
to use the peach-grader picture in Chapter XIX. 
Occasionally I have used extracts from letters and 
from Bxperiment Station or Department of Agricul- 
ture literature, but, in the main, this Orchard Book 
embodies my own experiences, observations and con- 
clusions — the result of a lifetime of practise and study. 
My friend, Wilmer Atkinson, claims that his paper 
is " Unlike any other. " He's right, too. It is. And, 
following a good example, I have tried to make this 
book different from any other. It isn't an encyclo- 
pedia ; it isn't a long-winded two or three dollar 
text-book; it isn't an incomplete pamphlet; it isn't 
hard to understand; and it isn't a rehash of other 
people's guesswork. No. It's simply a plain little 
book that aims to tell the inquiring reader just what 
he or she needs to know — no more, no less. I have 
tried to have all the necessary facts set down and all 
the unnecessary things left out. It's boiled-down 
' ' essence of orchard, ' ' served with picture trimmings, 
and side dishes of the finest colored plates ever put 
into a horticultural book. I hope you will like it, and 
that your orchard may prosper accordingly. 

Elmwood, 1906. JACOB BIGGLB. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter I. 


Chapter II. 


Chapter III. 


Chapter IV. 


Chapter V. 


Chapter VI. 


Chapter VII. 


Chapter VIII. 


Chapter IX. 


Chapter X. 


Chapter XI. 


Chapter XII. 


Chapter XIII. 


Chapter XIV. 


Chapter XV. 


Chapter XVI. 


Chapter XVII. 


Chapter XVIII 


Chapter XIX. 


Chapter XX. 



PAGE 

Starting an Orchard: Planning- 11 
Seed-Growing, Grafting and 

Budding 19 

Setting Trees 29 

Pruning and Early Care of 

Newly-Set Trees Zl 

Later Pruning 45 

Cultivation. Fertilization. 

Thinning 51 

Spraying 59 

Scale Pests : San Jose, Oyster- 
Shell, Scurfy, etc 67 

Cover Crops. Fall, Winter 

and Spring Care 75 

The Apple 81 

The Cherry 91 

The Peach 95 

The Pear 101 

The Plum 107 

The Quince and Dwarf Pear . Ill 

Nut Trees 115 

Citrus and Other Fruit Trees 119 

Picking Fruit 123 

Grading and Packing . . . .129 

Cold Storage and Marketing . 137 

(9) 



Chapter I. 



STARTING AN ORCHARD: PLANNING. 




If a man doesn't start, he -a.' ill tiever get anywhere.— 't\va.. 

The first thing to do about starting an orchard is 
to plan for it. Put on your thinking-cap, study into 
the matter, and do not 
jump in the dark. A 
slow start is much better 
than a poor start. Har- 
riet says that an orchard 

set in the right place, - ^2p^*-i^^^ -r"-^ «« 
at the right time and of '\\^-rvv^ 
the right varieties, is planning the orchard 
worth just "eleven times" more than a hit-or-miss 
orchard. (Where she secured the data for such exact 
figures, I do not know ; but I am willing to admit 
that she is about right in this statement.) 

To begin, suppose we consider the question of 
"right place. " The ideal spot for a proposed orchard 
is gently sloping and high. This doesn't mean that 
it must be on top of a mountain. No. It means only 
compar-ative height. The spot should be somewhat 
higher than its surroundings. That is the idea. Then 
when a frost comes — or a deluge — it quickly runs off 
on to the lower lands. Proper frost drainage is just 
as important as good water drainage. INIore so. Why? 
Because water can be tiled away ; frost can not. Some 
growers prefer a north or some other slope ; but 

(11) 



12 biggi^e: orchard book 

height of land is of more importance than direction of 
slope. 

Another thing to consider carefully, is the local 
climate and conditions connected therewith. For 
instance : Before setting a commercial orchard of, 
say, peach trees, look around and ascertain whether 
the natural local conditions are favorable to that par- 
ticular fruit. Is the locality a "peach section " ? Are 




ISN'T SOMETHING LIKE THIS WORTH 
PLANNING FOR? 

there successful peach orchards already established? 
Is the average winter climate mild enough for this 
somewhat tender fruit? Does the state experiment 
station advise the planting of peaches in your locality? 
Do near-by practical fruit-growers advise it? If the 
answer to each of these questions is, ' ' No, ' ' the chances 
are that you will be wise to change your plans and 
plant some other species of fruit, — some kind which 
is exactly adapted to the locality. The same rule 
holds good (to a greater or lesser degree) with other 
fruits. 



STARTING AN ORCHARD : PI^ANNINCi 



13 



P:flCHES,PLUMS 

PCARS,CHERR1ES 

ETC. 



Other local conditions to consider, before setting 
a commercial orchard, are transportation, marketing 
facilities, and the help problem. In some localities 
it is possible to employ transient help just when most 
needed, — men for picking (for example), or women 
for packing ; in other localities it is almost impossible 
to secure such temporary assistance. 

Carefully study the question of soil in its relation 
to the fruits, etc., to be grown. Some kinds of fruit 
do best on light soils, some do best on heavy soils. 
The difference between a 
sandy or a clayey location 
may mean the difference be- 
tween success and failure. 
In this book will be found, 
in the special chapter de- 
voted to each kind of fruit, 
etc., hints about the soil best 
suited to the species. 

The foregoing sugges- 
tions apply with most force, 
of course, to large orchards 
planted for market purposes. The home orchard for 
family use necessarily means an aggregation of various 
kinds of trees probably all set together on one kind of 
soil, and therefore it is not in this case always possible 
to cater to all the requirements of each. But it pays 
to do so, as nearly as is practicable, even with a small 
family orchard. 

Examine the subsoil. Is it so hard and so near 
the surface that tree roots can never hope to find 
a secure anchorage? Does water stand above the 




SUGGESTION FOR HOME- 
ORCHARD ARRANGEMENT 



14 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

subsoil in such quantity and with such persistency as 
to threaten ' ' wet feet ' ' to the trees ? If the former, 
seek another location ; if the latter, make up your 
mind to tile the field before setting the trees. There 
are few orchards which are not the better for a sys- 
tem of underground drains. Better do the necessary 
tiling at the start, rather than later. Have the tile 
buried three feet deep, and, if possible, lay it midway 
between tree rows. 

Now let us consider the question of the "right 
time." Generally speaking, early spring is the best 
season to set an orchard. There are some exceptions 
to this, of course. For instance : Sweet cherry trees 
often grow better when set in the fall. Some of the 
more hardy fruits — apples, pears, etc., — may be 
planted in autumn, if desired. Latitude has much 
to do with this question. The ^rther south you are, 
the safer it is to practise fall planting. 

In the north, however, it is seldom wise to set 
tender trees, like peaches or plums, until spring ; 
therefore the best rule I can give to the planter 
who isn't an expert, is: Stick to spring planting. 
Tim says that it's "better to be safe than sorry," 
and I am sure he is not far wrong. 

But it is usually good policy to purchase trees in 
the fall, "heel" them in near the proposed orchard, 
and thus be ready for instant action when the ground 
gets into workable shape in the spring. The fall 
buyer gets first choice of trees, and runs no danger 
of delayed spring shipments. Or, buy the trees in 
the fall, and let the nurseryman keep them for you 
until winter is over. 



STARTING AN ORCHARD : PLANNING 



15 




HEELING IN" TREES : 

TRENCH READY ; 

UNTYING NURSERY BUNDLE 



How to ' ' heel in ' ' 
trees : Dig a trench, about 
a foot and a half deep, the 
same in width, and as long- 
as may be necessary ; if 
possible, choose a high, 
sheltered, well - drained 
spot. Untie the bundles 
of trees, and place them 
loosely along the trench, 
— each variety by itself, 
properly labeled. Half-a- 
dozen trees to a running 
foot is close enough. Of course put the roots in the 
trench ; then incline the trees backward until they 
are "half lying down" across the excavation. Now 
shovel in fine dirt, carefully firm it into place, and 
pile the remainder of the excavated dirt well up 
around the roots and lower portion of trunks. If 
the climate is very cold, or if rabbits and mice 
are feared, earth can be piled still higher up 
around the trunks and perhaps even aroimd the 
lower branches. If large quantities of trees are to be 

' 'heeled in, ' ' work is les- 
sened and matters sim- 
,. ... plified if close-together 
parallel trenches are 
used instead of a single 
long one, using the dirt 
from each new trench to 
cover the preceding one. 
"heeling IN' OPERATION Draiii the water away 

COMPLETED, EXCEPT SHOVELING 

SOIL IN PLACE irom the trenches. 




16 BIGGIwE ORCHARD BOOK 

I earnestly advise all intending tree planters to 
visit the nearest reliable nursery and personally select 
the trees wanted. Pick out straight, healthy, properly- 
branched, thrifty trees. Medium-size trees are usually 
best. Of course they should be fumigated and 
guaranteed free from scale. (They should also be 
dipped at home in the lime, sulphur and salt mixture, 
to make assurance doubly sure. ) 

But perhaps you may prefer to grow your own 
trees, instead of buying them already grown. If so, 
you will find directions for seed sowing, budding and 
grafting, in the next chapter. 

At last we have come to the matter of "right 
varieties." And this is a very important matter, 
indeed. So important, in fact, that if it requires a 
year of preliminary study and inquir}^ to decide the 
matter rightly, it will be time profitably spent. 

Study the various fruit chapters in this book, 
wherein I have endeavored to give desirable lists of 
varieties for different localities. Write to your state 
experiment station, mentioning the nature of your 
soil, and ask for special advice as to the best varieties 
for you to plant ; and be sure to state whether your 
orchard is wanted for market or family purposes. 
Talk with practical fruit-growers in your locality. 
Consult with your market buyers (if you are to have 
a commercial orchard), or with your family's taste (if 
it's to be a home orchard) . 

Also, before buying or planning an orchard or 
ordering trees, study these facts about pollination of 
blossoms : Much of the unsatisfactory fruiting of 
orchards all over the country is due to self-sterility. 
A tree is self-sterile if it can not set fruit unless 
planted near other varieties. The main cause of 




STARTING AN ORCHARD : PLANNING 17 

self-sterility is the inability of the pollen of a variety 
to fertilize the pistils of that variety. An indication of 
self-sterility is the continued dropping of young fruit 
from isolated trees or solid blocks of one variety ; 
also, fruit from a self-sterile tree is apt to be imper- 
fectly formed. Self-sterility is not a constant character 
with any variety. Poorly-nourished treesaremorelikely 
to be sterile with their own pollen than well-fed trees 
are. The loss of fn;it from self-sterility may be pre- 
vented by planting other varieties . •vW;\, 
among the self -sterile trees, or -*^'=»U*^^> ^i^^„^ 
by graitmg other varieties into 
occasional trees. For names of 
varieties which are often self- 
sterile, consult each special fruil 
chapter in this book. 

^Getting the ground ready for the tree-setting is 
another important part of " starting an orchard." If 
possible, plow it in the fall. At least, it should be 
plowed previous to planting. Harrow it until the 
field is fine and level. 

If the ground was in sod last year, better grow pota- 
toes and subdue the grass previous to setting trees. 
Preliminary fertilizing may or may not be necessary 
or desirable. If the land is fairly fertile, I should pre- 
fer, ordinarily, to apply manure or fertilizer after the 
trees are planted, rather than before — 'tis more econom- 
ical. (See Chapter VI for further fertilizing facts. ) 

It is a good idea to make a plan of the orchard, drawn 
to scale, and mark thereon just where each tree is to go. 
This is a great help when figuring out how many trees 
to buy, or when setting the trees, or in after years when 
somebody asks : ' ' What's the name of i/its tree ? ' ' 



18 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

DONTS. 

Don't plan to start an orchard on sod. 

Don't waste money in bujing " big "' trees. 

Don't allow that you know it all ; consult with the other fellow. 

Don't locate an orchard on or very near the steep bank of 
an abrupt, deep ravine. A big g-ully often acts like a frost trap. 

Don't plan to set large, solid blocks of trees of any one 
variety. Better alternate several varieties in double rows. 

Don't forget that tree roots are not improved by exposure to 
wind or sun. Don't let them dry out, unduly, before "heeling 
in " or planting. Protect a newly-dug tree as you would a babj-. 

Don't neglect to plan for the planting of a windbreak on the 
north and west sides of the orchard, — but not too close; about 
forty feet distant will do. Scotch pine or Norway spruce makes 
a good shelter. 

The orchardist who figures the " possible net profit from one 
tree," and then multiplies that sum by the number of trees in the 
orchard, is usually storing up disappointment. Orchards, like 
chickens, seldom hatch out a crop exactly "according to rule." 

Don't figure on "novelties," nor varieties that the market 
doesn't want ; nor varieties that are already overplanted. Plant 
few kinds for market, rather than many kinds. Remember that 
large, uniform lots can be sold to better advantage than an 
assortment of many varieties. " Carload lots " always command 
attention. 

Don't forget that the near presence of large bodies of water 
(preferably to the windward of the orchard) , is often an impor- 
tant factor in the production of tender varieties of fruit. For 
example : Peaches, etc., are successfully grown on the east bank 
of X,ake Michigan, and not on the west bank ; and, on the east 
bank, the crop is more sure within three miles of the lake than 
it is farther inland. 

The age at which different fruit trees begin to bear moderately 
profitable crops varies greatly according to soil, climate, culture 
and varietr, but perhaps a fair average would be : Apples, in ten 
or twelve years from setting (Spy, Spitzenburg, Rambo, Seek-no- 
further, etc., are ver^' slow) ; cherries, five or six years ; oranges 
and lemons, eight or ten years ; peaches, four or five years ; pears 
(standard) , ten or twelve years ; pears (dwarf) , four or five years ; 
plums, five or six years ; quinces, five or six years. The peach is 
usually the shortest lived of all fruit trees, — twelve or fifteen 
years is about the average limit. 



PLATE I 



SMITH'S CIDER 




SMOKEHOUSE 



Chapter II. 

SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND 
BUDDING. 



Forward in the name of God : Plant, graft and nourish tip 
trees in your ground ; the labor is small, the cost is nothing, the 
commodity is great : yourselves shall have pleiity, the poor shall 
have sotnewhat in time of want, and God shall reward your good 
merits a?id diligence. — From an old English orchard book. 

Nearly all orchard trees come from seeds originally 
planted in nursery-beds, and later, after being budded 
or grafted, transplanted to the orchard. They are in 
fact usually transplanted once or more before being 
finally put out in the orchard, — except in the case of the 
chestnut, hickory, etc., which object to being trans- 
planted and are more easily grown by planting the 
nuts where the trees permanently belong. 

To those accustomed to sowing flower and vegetable 
seeds it is often a surprise to find that tree seeds do 
not germinate so readily as the others. It is a fact that 
they do not. Still, fair success may be looked for by 
attention to the preservation and sowing of the seeds. 

Joseph Meehan says: — "As a rule, all kinds of 
seeds of trees are the better sown in autumn. As 
soon as the seeds are ripe, keep them in a cool place 
and in sand so that they will not lose weight by dry- 
ing. If in a building not exposed to winds, it will be 
a suitable place. Apple, cherry, peach and the whole 
list of such trees are included. Nurserymen who 
raise trees by the millions follow this plan. 

(19) 



20 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

' ' The seeds are sown in beds, usually four feet in 
width, the seeds well covered, as any other seeds 
would be. A covering of forest leaves, straw or like 
material is placed over the beds, kept in place by 
adding branches of trees, sticks or prepared slats. 
This covering is taken off gradually in spring, as the 
seeds germinate. 

" Should it be inconvenient to sow in autumn, the 
same result may be expected from spring sowing, but 
the seeds must be properly preserved. There must be 
no loss of weight through the winter ; the seeds must 
be as fresh in spring as when gathered. To accom- 
plish this, either keep them in a damp cellar or mix 
them with slightly damp soil and keep in a cool cellar 
or room. What is required is that the seeds absorb a 
little moisture instead of losing any, and this the 
slightly damp soil permits of. When so preserved, 
sow them the very first thing in spring, just as soon 
as the frost leaves the ground. There need be no 
covering of leaves or straw to spring-sown beds. 

" Nurserymen prefer autumn planting, except for 
hickory-nuts, walnuts and a few such seeds which 
mice are apt to get away with, and these they sow in 
spring. 

" For autumn sowing, any time before the ground 
freezes will do, but be sure the seeds are not drying 
in the meantime. Seasons following sowings have 
much to do with the vegetation of tree seeds, and 
even experts sometimes fail to secure a crop." 

Importance) of Grafting. — Were all forms of 
the art of grafting and budding to be taken from the 
horticulturist today, commercial fruit growing in its 



SKED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 21 

high state of perfection would decay with the orchards 
now standing. All the common pomaceous fruits 
(apples, pears, and quinces) , the stone fruits (peaches, 
plums, cherries, and apricots) , and the citrus fruits 
(lemons, limes, and oranges) , are now multiplied by 
grafting or btidding. The progress in plant breeding 
and the great rapidity with which new sorts are now 
disseminated could not be attained without the aid of 
budding or grafting. 

The Scion and Its Treatment. — A scion is a 
portion cut from a plant, to be inserted upon another 
(or the same) plant, with the intention that it shall 
grow. The wood for scions should be taken while in 
a dormant or resting condition. The time usually 
considered best is after the leaves have fallen^ but 
before severe freezing begiJis. The scions should be 
cut in about six-inch lengths from matured new wood 
from bearing trees of known variety ; then tied in 
bunches and placed in moist sand, where they will 
not freeze and yet will be kept cold enough to pre- 
vent growth. Good results may follow cutting scions 
in the spring just before or at the time the grafting 
is to be done, but it is a much better plan to cut the 
scions in the fall. 

The Stock and Its Treatment. — The stock is 
the tree or part of a tree upon which or into which the 
bud or scion is inserted. For best results in grafting 
it is essential that the stock be in an active, growing 
condition. 

How TO CI.EFT Graft. — When in the spring the 
sap begins to move in the stock, be ready ; this occurs 
early in the plum and cherry, and later in the pear 



22 



biggIvE; orchard book 



and apple. Do the grafting, if possible, on a mild 
day during showery weather. The necessary tools 
are a chisel or a thick-bladed knife or a grafting iron 
(with which to split open the stock after it is sawed 
off smoothly with a fine -tooth saw), a hammer or 
mallet to aid the splitting process, a very sharp knife 
to trim the scions, and a supply of good grafting wax. 





m-ym 

SPLITTING THE 8TOCK TRIMMED SCION SCIONS INSERTED 




SECTIONAL 
TOP VIEW OF SCIONS 

IN PLACE 




GRAFTING W^AX 
APPLIED 



CI.EFT GRAFTING I FROM START TO FINISH 

Saw off a branch at the desired point, split the stock 
a little way down, and insert a scion at each outer 
edge — taking care that the inner bark of the scion 
fits snugly and exactly against the inner bark of the 
stock. This — together with the exclusion of air and 
moisture until a union results — constitutes the secret 
of success. Trim the scions wedge-shaped, as shown 
in the picture ; insert them accurately ; the wedge 



SKED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 23 



should be a trifle thicker on the side which comes in 
contact with the stock's bark. Lastly, apply grafting 
wax. Each scion should be long enough to have two 
or three bnds, with the lower one placed, as shown. 
The "spring" of the cleft holds the scion securely 
in place, and therefore tying should be unnecessary. 
If both scions in a cleft grow, one may later be cut 
away. 

Grafting Wax. — To four pounds of resin and one 
of beeswax add one pint of linseed oil ; put in an iron 
pot, slowly heat and mix well. Pour out into cold 
water and pull by hand until light-colored. Keep in 
a cool place. To use, oil the hands, work the wax 
until soft, and apply around scions and cracks. If 
weather is warm, occasionally moisten hands in cold 
water. 

Another recipe : One pound of resin, one-half 
pound of beeswax and one-quarter pound of tallow, 
melted together and applied with a brush. Keep in 
an iron pot ; heat for use when wanted. 

Other Methods of Grafting. — There are many 
other methods of uniting scion and stock, a few of 
which may be briefly mentioned, — although the 
average orchardist seldom has use for methods more 
complicated than the ordinary cleft graft : 

Bark grafting: A branch 
is sawed off, as for cleft 
grafting, and the scions, 
instead of being inserted in 
a cleft, are cut very thin and 
slipped between the bark 
and wood, being inserted how bark grafting is done 





24 



BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 




BRIDGE 
GRAFTING 





far enough to bring the growing parts together. The 
bark is then securely bound and wax is iised as in cleft 
grafting. It is an excellent method for grafting large 
limbs, as it injures the stock less than cleft grafting. 
Bridge grafting, so-called, is merely 
a method for saving a girdled tree. 
Several upright scions are inserted in 
the bark, at top and bottom, thus fur- 
nishing bridges or connec- 
tions through which the sap 
can flow. A good coating of grafting wax 
is then applied. If all goes well, the tree 
grows a new bark on the girdled part. The 
illustration explains the operation fully. 
Crown grafting refers 
merely to a grafting opera- 
tion (any style) performed grafting 
on the stem at or near the surface of 
the ground. 

Root grafting means the insertion 
of a graft in a stock which is entirely 
a root. 

Saddle grafting is plainly shown 
in Fig. I. 

Shield grafting 
very thin, as in bark grafting, 
and is inserted under the 
bark of the stock as a bud 
is inserted in the process of 
budding, and is firmly bound 
in place with waxed cord or 
raffia. shield grafting 



fig. i. saddle 
grafting 



The scion is cut 




SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 




method) in 



SIDE 
GRAFTING 



Side grafting : See ilkistration. A, 
B and C show how it is done. 

Splice grafting is very simple. It is 
like whip grafting, minus the mortising. 
The two diagonally cut ends are fitted 
together ("spliced") and then held in 
place by a waxed tie. 

Top grafting means, simply, the 
inserting of scions (by any desired 
the branches of trees. 

Many a worthless tree has thus been 
changed into a desirable variety. 
By using enough scions it is possible 
to make an entire new top on almost 
any tree. See Fig. II, and study 
the idea shown there. It is not 
best to cut away too much of the 
old tree at once ; therefore, a few 
secondary branches are left, and 
these, after the scions are thriftily 
growing, can gradually be cut away the 
following season. 

Whip grafting, also called "tongue 
grafting" (see Fig. Ill), consists of an 
exact "dovetailing" of scion into stock. 
Nurserymen use this method in special 
cases, and often in root grafting. 

The Art of Budding. — This consists 
in taking a bvid from one tree and insert- 
ing it under the bark of some other tree, 
says Farm Journal. The union of the two, 
the bud and the stock, takes place at the grafting 




FIG. II 
MAKING A N E W TOP 




26 



biggle; orchard book 



edges of the bark of the inserted bud. For this reason 
the bud should be inserted as soon as cut from its 
twig and before it has had time to dry out. The bud 
should also be full, plump and well matured, and cut 
from wood of the current season's growth. The stock 
should be in active growth so that the bark will slip 
easily. In cutting the bud a sharp knife is required, 




CtJTTIXG A BUD FROM 
A BUD STICK 



T-SHAPED 
INCISION IN STOCK 



RAISK THE 
BARK, THUS 





AND INSERT 
THIS BUD 



THEN TIE IT 
IN PLACE 



NEXT SEASON CUT 
AWAY THE STOCK, THUS 



BUDDING : FROM A TO Z 

as a clean, smooth cut is desirable. The knife is 
inserted a half inch above and brought out the same 
distance below, shaving out a small wedge of wood 
under the bud along with the bark. This wedge is no 
hindrance to the union and should not be removed. 
The leaf is always clipped off. 

To insert bud, make a T-shaped incision just 
through the bark of stock, as shown in the illustra- 
tion. Raise the bark carefully without breaking it 



SEED-GROWING, GRAFTING AND BUDDING 27 

and insert the bud. Practise will give ease and 
despatch to the operator. The bud must be held 
fimily to the stock by a bandage wound about the 
stock both above and below it, being careful to leave 
the eye of the bud uncovered. Raffia, bast, candle- 
wick or waxed cloth may be used for tjing. In aboiit 
ten days, if the bud "takes," the bandage must be 
removed, or the stock will be strangled and its growth 
hindered. The work of budding is usually performed 
in July or August in the North, and in June in the 
South. Whoi the bark peels easily and the weather is 
dry and clear ^ is the ideal time . 

There are other methods of performing this bud- 
ding operation, but the one described is in most 
common use. Usuallj' the buds are inserted in young 
seedling trees at a point close to the ground. This 
done, the operation is complete until the following 
season, when all the trees in which the buds have 
"taken " should have the top cut off just above the 
bud. (See illustration on page 26. ) 

Budding and Grafting Compared. — The 
removal of the top forces the entire strength of the 
root into the bud, and, since the root itself has not 
been disturl^ed by transplanting, a more vigorous 
growth usually results from the bud than from scions 
in grafting. 

The one objection to budding is that it causes an 
unsightly crook in the body of the tree, luiless the 
tree is afterward planted deep enough in the orchard 
to cover the deformity. 

The best methods of propagating each kind of 
fruit will be found in the special chapter relating to 
that particular kind. 



28 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

SPROUTS FROM EXPERIENCE. 

Repeated freezing and thawing while in a moist condition is 
destructive to most seeds. 

Tim says that orchard grafters are the only kind of grafters 
"who don't get into trouble nowadays. 

Be sure that your top grafts are not choked out by being 
overshaded or interfered with by growth from the stock. If 
lice appear, soak the pests with strong tobacco-tea ; do this early, 
before the leaves curl and hide the insects. 

Cherry, peach and other pits should not be allowed to dry 
much after they are taken from the fruit. Wash them clean, 
dry in the shade sufficiently to prevent mold, and then stratify, 
or store as directed in the beginning of this chapter. 

No use to attempt the grafting or budding of vmrelated 
fruits ; the pomaceous fruits, the stone and the citrus kinds, are 
families by themselves. For example : The pear works nicely 
on the pear, better on the quince, and not so easily on the apple, 
but yovi can't induce it to grow on the cherry or the plum. And 
\ace versa. 

Nurserymen frequently practise what they call "stratifica- 
tion " ; it consists in placing layers of seeds alternating with 
layers of sand in a shallow box. This box may be buried or it 
may be set in a sheltered place and covered with leaves or straw 
to the depth of a foot. The object is to soften and decay the hard 
covering without starting germination. Freezing is beneficial 
in case of walnuts, hickory-nuts, peach pits, and the like, as it 
helps to crack the shells. Hence svich seeds are sometimes 
stratified in boxes placed in sheltered spots on the surface of 
the ground, or they maj' be merely placed in a pile on the ground 
with a slight covering of leaves or straw. A special point to be 
guarded against in stratification is alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing. Seeds receiving this treatment should be planted imme- 
diately upon being removed from stratification and before signs 
of growth appear. A few hours' exposure to wind and sun may 
prove disastrous. 



PLATE II 



RAMBO 





KING 



Chapter III. 
SETTING TREES. 



Trees are like children : In the beginning they give us a 
great deal of trouble and ivorry, but in the end 7C'e are proud of 
them. — Farmer Vincent. 

Most planters make the mistake of setting their 
trees too closely together. It seems to them no better 
than an extravagant waste of ground to set little 
spindling trees so many feet apart, and it requires 
some imagination to think that the trees will ever 
completely occupy the ground. As the man stands off 
to survey his newly-set orchard, it actually seems as if 
there were nothing there ! But if he could see that 
same orchard a few years hence, in his mind's eye, 
he would surely see the great wisdom of giving each 
tree plenty of "elbow room." 

Here is a table of planting distances which is safe 
to follow : 

Almonds, 16 to 20 feet each way. 

Apples, .... 35 to 40 feet each way. 

Apricots, 18 to 20 feet each way. 

Cherries, sweet, . . 20 to 25 feet each way. 
Cherries, sour, . . 16 to 18 feet each way. 
Chestnuts, Paragon, About 30 feet each way. 

Oranges, 25 to 35 feet each way. (Dwarf kinds less). 

Peaches, 18 to 20 feet each way. 

Pears, standard, . . 20 to 25 feet each way. 
Pears, dwarf, ... 12 ft. to 1 rod each way. 

Pecans, 35 to 40 feet each way. 

Plums, 18 to 20 feet each way. 

Quinces, 12 feet each way. 

(29) 



30 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

After the tree planter has succeeded in conquering 
the temptation to crowd his trees too closely together, 
he is often bitten by another temptation — the ' ' filler ' ' 
idea. An orchard "filler," as the word is usually 
/understood, is a small -growing, short-lived tree, — 
I something which begins to bear fruit quickly, and 
which can be cut out after a few years when it begins 
to crowd the main trees. In theory the idea seems 
all right, but in actual practise it does not often work 
out entirely satisfactorily. Usually the fillers are not 
cut out soon enough. It requires a good deal of pluck 
to chop down a nice tree, even if it is "only a filler." 
Then, again, there's often trouble because the tran- 
sients and the permanents require different treatment. 
For instance, the full - strength Bordeaux mixture 
would be all right for apple trees but too strong for 
peach or Japanese plum trees ; and the latter might 
require later or shallower cultivation than the non- 
producing apples. 

The effect of distance between apple trees set about 
1880, was recently studied in its relation to yield. 
The following four-year averages were found : 

Bushels 
per acre. 

Trees not more than 30 x 30 feet apart, 186 

Trees 31 x 31 to 35 x 35 feet apart, 222 

Trees 36 x 36 to 40 x 40 feet apart, 229 

Which goes to show that it does not pay to set trees 
too closely together. 

The first thing to do in setting an orchard, is to 
lay out and mark the outer sides of the field, accu- 
rately, — these being the base lines from which to 



SETTING TREES 31 

work staking operations. Square the corners by 
sighting along a steel square laid on three stakes, the 
middle stake being exactly on a corner. When the 
four corners are thus established, measure and stake 
where the outside trees are to go, on two opposite 
sides of the square. But do not have these tree- 
places nearer than twenty feet to the outer limits of 
orchard field (if there are shade or windbreak trees 
on the orchard line, make the distance at least forty 
feet). Remember that when you come to work the 
orchard, you will want plenty of room on the outer 
edges, — to turn the team, the h nrrow , or the wagon. 
The square system of planting is easiest and 
therefore most commonly used. Trees should be set 
exactly straight, because this adds to the looks of 
the orchard and facilitates cultivation. Here is an 
excellent method of staking and planting : Begin by 
using a small rope or wire, stretching this from one 
base-line to the corresponding stake on the opposite 
side ; then put in small pegs along its entire length, 
the distance apart at which it is intended to plant the 
trees. After the whole orchard has been so laid out, 
take a double-staking board having three V-shaped 
notches in it. This board may be about four feet long 
and perhaps four inches wide ; any thickness desired. 
Start at the first peg and place board so that the stake 
fits in the centre notch, — then remove this stake and 
put it in the notch made at one end of the board, and 
put another stake in the notch in the opposite end of 
the board ; and continue until the whole orchard is 
double-staked in this way. A hole can now be dug 
between each two stakes. To do the planting the 



32 



BIGGIvE ORCHARD BOOK 



staking-board is again brought into requisition and 
placed over the hole, so that the two stakes fit into 
the notches at the end. Then the young tree is held 
so that its trunk fits into the centre notch, — just where 
the single stake stood befoj^e the double-staking took 
place. In either double-staking or planting always 
work from one end of the row to the other, and 
always keep the centre notch of the board facing away 
I from you. If one is careful 

in performing this work it is 
sure to turn out well. This 
sounds like a complicated oper- 
ation, perhaps ; but really it is 
very simple and easy in practise. 
The picture plainly shows how 
the board is made and used, and 
it is hardly necessary to add that 
each tree is to be held exactly in 
place in the notch until most of 
the soil is shoveled into the hole 
and firmed securely in place. 

Number of trees required for an acre : 




STAKING-BOARD IN USE 



If set 12 feet apart, 302 trees. 

If set 16K feet apart, 160 trees. 

If set 18 feet apart, 134 trees. 

If set 20 feet apart, 108 trees. 

If set 25 feet apart 70 trees. 

If set 30 feet apart, 48 trees. 

If set 36 feet apart, 33 trees. 

If set 40 feet apart, 27 trees. 

(NOTK : The foregoing- figures are based on the square system 
of planting. If the triangular method is used, about one-eighth 
more trees can be set on each acre.) 



SETTING TREES 33 

The one objection to planting in squares, says 

Lowell B. Jndson, Idaho Experiment Station, is that 

it does not cover the ground uniformly with trees ; for 

instance, A is farther from D, and B from C, than A 

from B or C, or B from D or A, — making a waste of 

^ g space in the middle of the square. (See 

|\. "/l illustration.) This is sometimes utilized 

I \(^ \ by planting a tree there, such as a peach 

■y^ \; or some quick-bearing or short-lived tree, 

*^ ° temporarily to occupy the ground ; but this 

results in crowding, in a very few years. 

The best scheme forgetting the maximum number 
of trees at a given distance apart on the land, is the 
hexagon or triangle system (sometimes called the 
septuple system) , which makes every tree exactly 
the same distance from each of its neighbors. The 
accompanying diagram shows the arrangement, and 
the dotted lines make plain the triangles and hexa- 
gons. If each tree is joined to each of its neighbors 
by a straight line, a network of triangles will be 
formed, and each group of six triangles around each 

tree forms a hexagon with a tree ^ p^ 

in the centre. There are several / / \ 

ways of laying out an orchard on ^'. ^ .■^■;. ^. 

this plan, the most expeditious \ 

being to use a wire. The end stakes V 

of the second row are most easily 

found by means of a wire triangle, / 

each side of which is as long as the triangle system 

desired distance between trees. of planting 

Thomas Meehan gives the following directions for 
planting fruit trees received from a nursery, and he 



34 



BIGGI.E; ORCHARD BOOK 



has cov^ered all the points so well that I can not do 

better than to quote his method : 

"Quickly unpack stock upon arrival; shake out 

packing material ; dip the roots in liquid mud. In 
case stock cannot be immediately set 
out, prepare a place where it can be tem- 
porarily planted, taking care to cover 
roots thoroughly, working the soil in 
among the fibres. Dig generous holes, 
provide good soil to fill 

TREE SET TOO tlicm ; dou't bend roots; 
HIGH cleanly cut off severely 





TOO LOW AND 
IN A HOLLOW 



l)ruised or broken roots, and never let 

them dry. Dip them in mud, place in 

hole, throw good soil in hole, tightly 

ramming it around roots after each 

shovelful. Leave no air-pockets. After 

hole is filled, cover top of ground thick- 
ly with good, well-rotted stable manure 
as far as roots extend. ' ' 

Look out for crown'' and root galls. 
Burn all such trees. Crown gall is a 
common disease in many nurseries and 
it attacks all kinds of fruit trees. It is 
the worst kind of folly 
to plant a tree which 

has a trace of this disease, for not 

only is the tree pretty sure to die be- 
fore it comes into full bearing but the 

infection may be spread to all parts 

of the orchard. If galls (knotty, 

TREE SET 

bunchy swellings) are found at the properly 




ROOTS BADLY 
BUNCHED 
TOGETHER 




SETTING TREES 35 

base of tree triuik^ the trouble is probably the fun- 
gous disease called crown gall ; if found on the roots 
of apple trees, an insect called the woolly aphis is to 
blame. 

USEFUI, SIDE SHOOTS, 
A tree out of place is a nuisance ; in its place it is a blessing. 

Do not let manure come in direct contact with the roots of 
young trees. Apply manure as a mulch. 

An assistant is very helpful when setting trees. Two men, 
or a man and a boy, can work together to good advantage. 

Better not dig holes much in advance of the tree -setting. 
Soil dries out quickly, and roots need moist earth around them. 

Thrifty young trees are more apt to live than the larger, older 
ones. Young roots are smaller, and more apt to be all taken 
up in transplanting. 

How deep should trees be set in the ground ? A little deeper 
than they were set when growing in the nursery. J)eep enough 
so that the joint between stock and scion is covered. 

For measuring purposes a wire is better than a rope or cord, 
because it will not stretch. Stick a bit of solder on the wdre, 
exactly where each tree is to come. String or bits of cloth tied 
on, are apt to slip. 

As the tree-setting progresses, it is a good plan often to 
"sight" the rows across from side to side, both ways, to make 
sure that everything is exactly straight. The eye is an excellent 
detector of unsuspected crooks in rows. 

In exposed situations or in windy localities, it is a good plan 
to incline the newly-set tree slightly toward the northwest or 
whichever point of the compass the strong winds come from. 
The trees will straighten as they grow. 

One or two old blankets will come in handy when setting 
trees. As fast as an armful of trees is dug from the heeling-in 
place, wrap the roots in a blanket until all are planted. Don't 
let the roots lie around in sun and wind, unprotected. 



36 biggi^e; orchard book 



r 



The safest way when buying- fruit trees is to dip them in the 
lime-sulphur mixture before setting them or heeling them in. 
Do this as a matter of precaution against the San Jose scale 
louse. The best way to fight this pest is to fight it from the very 
beginning. 

Farm Journal says: "The other day we saw Peter Tumble- 
down on his way home with a load of loose fruit trees from a local 
nursery. TJie wind was blowing, the sun was hot, the trees were 
unprotected by even a blanket. Next year Peter will be finding 
fault with the luirseryman because the trees are no good." 

How not to plant trees : " Dig a hole, do not trouble about its 
depth nor the space that will be required for the roots. If the 
soil consists of brickbats, it will do ! Select a tree that is sure to 
be too big for its place in a short time. You can then cut off its 
branches and make it look like a real work of art, such as a 
clothes-prop or a gibbet. Plant the trees as thickly as possible, 
and forget to thin them out. You will then produce an imme- 
diate effect, and you will have the satisfaction of witnessing a 
fight — and appreciating a struggle for existence. Having planted 
your tree, stake it in such a way that the stem may be snapped 
off ; this will give the wind something to do. Never think of 
removing the stake or loosening its ties — that would involve too 
much trouble. Avoid placing any guard around the newly- 
planted trees. In this way you will provide fodder for your 
neighbor's horse, which will graze contentedly on the bark ; 
and you will provide healthful amusement for the boys, who 
■will playfully score the bark with their knives." My good wife 
Harriet clipped these rules from an old publication, and she 
says that they are full of "contrary usefulness." 



PLATE III 



REN DAVIS 







RHODE ISLAND GREENING 



Chapter IV. 

PRUNING AND EARLY CARE OF 
NEWIvY-SET TREES. 



Take care of your orchard and your orchard will take care of 
you. — Harriet. 

The newly-set tree must quickly be pruned. As it 
stood in the nursery row there was approximately a 
balance between the top and the roots, the latter being 
just about enough, under the conditions of that soil, 
to supply what moisture and nourishment the leaves 
and branches needed. P^vidently if half of the roots 
were suddenly removed this equilibrium would be 
destroyed, and each leaf would show its distress at the 
decreased sap pressure, by wilting, and the weaker 
ones would probably die. 

Now, that is essentially the condition of the nursery 
tree ; no matter how carefully it was dug, many of its 
fine feeding roots are sure to have broken off, or have 
dried up ; and until it can re-establish its relations 
with the soil, and put out new roots to take the place 
of those destroyed, it is totally unable to support and 
nourish the original amount of top. The fine root- 
hairs, which appear like fuzz near the tips of the 
smaller roots, and do most of the absorbing for the 
roots, dry out almost instantly on exposure to air, and 
are practically all destroyed in transplanting. It 
takes some time to form these anew, and if the whole 
top is left to " leaf out" during the process, the rapid 

(37) 



38 



BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 




TOO HIGH 
CUTTING 



TOO LOW CORRECT 



evaporation from so many points will result in disas- 
trous drying of the whole tree. 

That can be avoided by cutting back the top to 
correspond with the roots, thus reducing evaporation 
to the point where they can supply the loss. In the 
case of the yearling whip without side branches, it is 
sufficient to cut it off at the height at which it is 
intended the leader shall start out — (gay about two or 

three feet above grouncO 
Always cut to a bud^ 
making a sloping cut 
which leaves not more 
than a quarter of an 
inch projecting beyond 
the bud. During the 
summer all the buds 
along the side will de- 
velop branches ; all the lower ones and those not in- 
tended to form the main framework of the tree must 
be pinched off, otherwise the lower branches may 
make a shrub of your tree. Aim to throw all_ the 
strength of the growth into the required main 
branches. 

Branched, or two-year-old trees, require a different 
style of pruning after being set. The lower limbs 
have generally been cut off by the nurserymen before 
the tree reaches the planter, so the height of the 
"head" is, in a sense, already fixed. What remains 
to be done is to choose three, four or five limbs to 
form the future framework of the tree. These should 
come out from the trunk in different directions, dis- 
tributed as evenly as possible ; and, if feasible, no 



TO " A BUD 



PRUNING : CARE OF NEWI^Y-SET TREES 



39 




READY TO PRUNE 

NEWLY-SET APPLE 

TREE 



two branches should come out exactly opposite each 
other, or a weak crotch will be formed which may- 
break and split at some critical 
time. Severely cut back the 
chosen^ limbs and (remove all 
other limbs.l Bach of the re- 
maining limbs should now be 
about six or eight inches long ; 
usually with the terminal bud 
pointing outward on Qnch.. (If 
the variety's habit of growth is 
naturally very spreading it is 
sometimes best to correct this 
tendency, by cutting to terminal 
buds which point inward.) 

Forms of Heads. — The 
apple, peach, plum, quince, sour cherry, and similar 
r trees, frequently seem best adapted 

to the open -centre, spreading, 
standard form. In such cases a cen- 
tral leading shoot is not needed or 
wanted. This matter is more or less 
a matter of choice. Some folks 
prefer a ' ' leader, ' ' others do not. 
The sweet cherry, pear, etc., 
often seem best suited to the up- 
right, central -leader form. In 
such instances it is usual to have 
this main shoot a little longer 
SAME APPLE TREE tliuu tlic sidc branclies, — with its 
Il^yj'J''''!' °^^''- terminal bud pointing toward the 

CENTRE, STANDARD , f b 

FORM direction of prevailing high wdnds. 




40 



BIGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 




NEWLY-SKT PKACH 

TREE, BEFORE 

PRUNING 



Pruning Peach Trees. — It is customary to prune 
newly-set peach trees differently from most other trees. 
Whether the nursery tree is a 
branchless whip, or a well-branched 
tree, the entire top should be cut 
off at the point where a new head 
is wanted. If any branches remain 
below that point, those, also, are 
cutoff, — not too closely, however; 
'tis usually better to leave stubs 
about an inch in length, so as not 
to injure the remaining bud. 
Some peach growers cut off their 
trees at a uniform height of about 
one and one-half feet ; others pre- 
fer a height of two, or two and 
one-half, or even three feet. The decision depends 
somewhat on the size of the trees, and the grower's 
personal preference ; but there is no doubt that the 
lowest possible head, consistent r 
with future cultivation, is most 
desirable. Two feet, or two feet 
and a quarter, is perhaps a happy 
medium. 

The " StringeeivI<ow Meth- 
od. " — A very severe kind of root 
and top pruning, known as the 
Stringfellow method, is some- 
times advocated. The chief ad- 
vantage claimed is that the roots 
grow straighter downward than 

.,, ,. ^ . . , SAME PEACH TREE, 

with ordinary trees, giving greater after pruning 




PRUNING : CARE OF NKWLY-SET TREES 



41 




NEWLY-SET PEAR 

TREE, BEFORE 

PRUNING 



security against drought and high winds. The labor 
of setting is also much reduced, as a small hole will 
accommodate the stubbed roots, 
■41^ and it is an easy matter to pack 

the earth around them. The tree 
is, in fact, reduced to a cutting ; 
but cuttings of woody plants are 
not apt to do especially well out- 
of-doors in this country. To grow 
a cutting successfully the soil 
should be as warm or warmer than 
the air, to stimulate the formation of 
roots before the top starts to grow ; 
if the latter starts first, the demand 
for sap, and rapid evaporation, wdll 
quickly exhaust the juices of the 
stem, and it dies. In the sandy soils of Texas, 
in which Mr. Stringfellow planted his trees, he 
had a natural propagating bed, a 
very warm soil and all the condi- 
tions to make cuttings do well. I 
will admit that some orchardists 
in other states have had more or 
less success with this method ; 
but, personally, I prefer to plant 
my trees in the good old way — 
with all the roots on them possi- 
ble. Tim says that he can't see 
any wisdom in cutting off a tree's 
entire stomach. 

Record of Varieties. — The same pear tree 

pruned, central- 
best way to establish such a record leader form 




42 BIGGIvE ORCHARD BOOK 

is to make a detailed plan of the orchard as advised in 
Chapter I. The map should show the proper name, 
place and age of each tree. The next best way is to 
label the trees. Whatever you do, don't trust to 
memory. 

A good tree label : Procure a thin piece of sheet 
zinc, six inches wide, from which cut strips crosswise 
three-quarters of an inch wide at one end, and taper- 
ing to one-eighth inch at the other end. Odd pieces 
of old zinc, stove boards, etc., may thiis be utilized. 
After being cut, the pieces should be put in vinegar to 
allow them to corrode, after which an ordinary lead 
pencil will complete the business. Either or both 
sides can be written upon. And the writing will last 
for years, too, so that " he who 
runs may read "; as hundreds of 
labels in this vicinity can testify. The diagram ex- 
plains the idea. Simply wrap the small end of label 
loosely around a limb of the tree — rather than around 
the trunk. As the limb grows, loosen the label some- 
what, or change it to a smaller limb. On the reverse 
side of the label it might be well to write the name 
of the agent or nurseryman who furnished the tree ; 
then, later, if the variety proves untrue to name, you 
will know whom to blame. 

Look Out for Ci^imbing Cut-Worms. — Thou- 
sands of newly-set fruit trees die every spring — 
" unaccountably." Usually, too, the nurseryman who 
furnished the stock is blamed ; when, in reality, the 
trouble is often a climbing cut-worm that comes, like 
a thief in the night, to feast on the swelling, luscious 
buds. And, when daylight appears, he crawls down 




pruning: care of newi^y-set trees 43 

and hides in the soil or tinder a stick. Oh, he's a sly 
fellow ! 

This slightly -reduced picture shows how this 
whitish pest looks when he's at 
work. Several methods of com- 
bating cut-worms have been in- 
vented, but one of the best ways 
is to fence them out. Fig. I gives 
the idea. Cut some stiff tar-paper into strips about 
nine inches long and two or three inches wide. Put 
a strip around a tree trunk, tightly lap the edges an 
inch or more, and push the lower half of the circle 
into the soil — to anchor it and to prevent w^orms from 
easily burrowing beneath. It takes but a short time 
— and only a few cents — thus to protect several hun- 
dred newly-set trees. All that is necessary 
is to have the paper at least an inch and one- 




half away from all parts of the tree ; to have 
the edges lapped tightly ; and to make sure 
that no worms are hid in the soil between 
the paper and the tree. Any kind of stiff 
paper, or wood veneer, or tin, will do ; I pre- 
fer tar-paper because it is lasting and cheap. 
An orchard thus protected is safe for many weeks — 
until cut-worm danger is mostly over. Just why the 
worms do not "climb over the fence, " is a puzzle. But 
they very rarely do. These worms are less trouble- 
some on heavy soils than on light soils. They seem 
to prefer sandy ground, in which they can more easily 
hide and propagate. 

Danger of Premature Fruit-Bearing. — The 
act of bearing fruit is sure to stunt the growth of 



44 BIGGIyE ORCHARD BOOK 

very young trees. It pays to pick off the blossoms 
from all very young- fruit trees. Two neighbors tried 
this in two similar cherry orchards. One man had 
the children pick off all blossoms each year ; the 
other man didn't. At the end of five years the first 
man's trees were nearly twice as large as the second 
man's. (Age of trees, care and soil, were the same, 
otherwise. ) 

HINTvS FOR THK HEEDFUL,. 

Don't forget to visit the young trees often and rub off all 
shoots which are not needed in the formation of the new head. 

Don't overlook this fact: Success or failure with an orchard 
after it has been planted depends upon the care given the young 
trees for the first few years. 

IVIany a nice little tree has been ruined because its owner 
forgot to remove the wire label that the nurseryman put there. 
Better look after those wires right away. 

Don't neglect, after the first heavy rain in May, to throw 
two forkfuls of strawy manure around each newly - planted 
tree, — to keep the moisture in and to insure a good start. 

If the location is a windy or unprotected one, don't forget 
in late summer to stake the young trees. But use cloth bands 
about the bark — not cord or wire, which would probably chafe 
and injure the tender trunks. 

If the ground around young fruit trees is not kept constantly- 
cultivated, the trees should be heavily mulched all summer. 
vStraw or strawy manure is a good mulch. Newb'-set trees have 
no depth of root and they dry out very rapidb'. 

Don't, as a rule, when pruning newly-set trees, cut "to" 
terminal bvids which point ijmias'd ■ Why ? Because, if you do, 
the new top shoots will be apt to "grow in the direction the buds 
point, thus causing crossed limbs in the centre of the new tree- 
head. 

The advantages of low-headed trees, says Prof. Bailey, may 
be mentioned as follows : Greater ease in picking, thinning, 
pruning and spraying, and less damage to trees and fruit from 
winds. Some growers object to low-headed trees on account of 
the greater difficulty of cultivating around them, but with proper 
pruning low-headed trees develop ascending branches -which 
permit proper working with a team. 



fLA 1 C IV 



STAYMAN 
WINESAP 




TWENTY 
OUNCE 



Chapter V. 



LATER PRUNING. 



The ideal pi lining consists not in checking gro^uth, but in- 
directing it. 

Before touching saw or knife to a tree, the 
orchardist should have well in mind what he ought 
to accomplish by the work. Among the following 
are the chief objects sought : 

1. To restore the balance between top and roots at 
tims of setting out (as told in Chapter IV). 

2. To make the top open-centred, 
regulate the number of limbs com- 
posing it, fix it at the proper height 
from the ground, and do away with 
weak crotches. 

3. In older trees, to remove 
crossed branches, and thin them out 
to admit sunlight and tliiis facilitate 
spraying, ripening, etc. 

4. To induce the production of 
fruit rather than wood, and vice 
versa ; in other words, to correct 
shy bearing and overbearing. 

5. To keep lower limbs out of 
the way of cultivation, and upper 
ones from growing out of easy reach 
of spraying, picking, etc. 

6. To change biennial to annual bearing ; in other 
words, to break a tree of the ' ' off 3'ear ' ' habit. 

(45) 




46 



BIGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 




7. To correct a too compact or a too spreading 

growth of top. 

The "ideal" pruning, says W. N. Hutt, would 

consist in removing not branches but buds; not in 
checking growth but in direct-* 
ing it/ It is less shock to the 
tree to pinch off buds here and 
there, than a few years later to 
saw off large, misplaced limbs. 
From the sap is manufactured 
both wood and fruit ; it is better, 
therefore, to direct the energy 
of the mature tree toward grow- 
ing fruit which goes to the cellar 
and market, than in making 
wood which goes to the brush 
pile. It is largely a question 
of the proper direction of the 
Llany trees may be so formed 

and shaped when young that in later years pruning 

need be only slight, and it will never be necessary to 

cut out large limbs. Few of us, however, are able to 

live quite up to this ideal method, and so we often 

resort to the saw and shears. 

When to Prune. — The time that 

pruning should be done is determined 

by the purpose such prvming is intended 

to serve. Pruning of trees to encourage 

fruitfulness should be done in summer 

when the trees are in active growth, — 

preferably in Tune. Pruning for wood 

, , ,,1,11, LONG-HANDLED 

g^rowth, on the other hand, should be tools 



THREE PRUNING TOOLS 
MOST USED 

energies of the tree. 




I^ATER PRUNING 



47 



done when the trees are dormant. The best time is 
in the spring before the buds start. 

Pruning should not, as a rule, be done in winter 
time. When a wound is made in winter the delicate 
cambium bark layer is exposed to rough winds and 
low temperatures and is killed back for some distance 
between the bark and the wood. Every day of zero 
weather increases the trouble, and, in spring when 
growth starts, in- 
stead of the cambium 
starting at the cut to 
heal over the wound, 
it has to start consid- 
erably below. Frost- 
bitten wounds are 
slow to heal. 

Thousands of 
fruit-growers inva- 
riably prune their 
trees in early spring, 
— not from any well- 
considered convic- 
tions as to the effect 
on the trees, but 
merely because it is 

the slack season of the year and therefore most con- 
venient for pruning operations. These good folks 
should ask themselves this question : " Do I most 
need and want wood growth in my orchard, or fruit 
growth ? " 

If the orchard has been recently set, or if it is old 
and run-down, wood growth may be more desirable 




THREE-YEAR-OLD PEACH TREE, 
AFTER BEING PRUNED 



48 



biggle; orchard book 



for awhile. But if there is already sufficient wood 
growth, why prune at a time that forces more of it? 
Stop and think a bit. 

Gene^raIv Rui.es for Pruning. — Never cut away 
more wood than is necessary to obtain the end in 
view. Err on the side of cutting too little rather than 
too nuich, for if too much is taken off it can not be 
replaced in many years. Large crops of fruit can not 
be grown on trees with a few exposed branches. Cut 
out all dead wood as soon as it is discovered. If two 
branches rub together so as to injure one another, the 
weaker should be cut away. If one branch rests on 
the top of another, one should be removed. Head 
back and thin out the top rather than cut off the lower 
branches, so as to bring the fruit as low 
as possible, on account of thinning, 
spraying, and harvesting. Never 
remove entire side branches if it can 
be avoided. If it must be done, cut 
as shown in Fig. I ; thus the tree is 
PRUNING A SIDE triiuiued up for horse cultivation with- 
BRANCH Q^^ sacrificing the whole of main limb. 

All cuts should be left as smooth as 
possible ; and all wounds more than one- 
half inch in diameter ought to be covered 
with a coat of thick linseed oil paint, — 
to keep out dampness and prevent rot 
while Nature is healing the cut. - 

Never leave a stub. Cut close, yet 
not too close. (vSee Fig. II.) fig. ii 

Cut out suckers on a tree whenever 2TJwIoN°cr 
you see them. Also, watch for and cut no. i, right 





i^ater pruning 



49 





FIG. Ill 
CUT NOT SO 



off any suckers which may grow from base of trunk. 
Do this at any time. 

When cutting off fair-size limbs, saw the underside 
of the limb about one-third of the way 
through, or till the saw begins to pinch, 
and then saw on top about one-half inch 
from the undercut ; and when sawed 
down almost to the undercut the limb 
will break off and not peel 
down the side of the tree. 
(See illustrations. Figs. Ill and IV.) 
Then continue the top cut so as to leave 
|, I no stub. 

*'l-d Root-pruning is sometimes practised, 

the object being to check the growth of 
a vigorous tree (which is old enough to bear, but 
which refuses to do so) , and thus favor the develop- 
ment of fruit buds. This operation is seldom neces- 
sary, however, and few orchardists ever attempt it. 

Pruning a neglected old orchard is 
often a puzzling jol). To do the work 
right, a vast amount of wood must 
come off, and, consequently, the average 
pruner is likely to remove too much, 
thus doing more harm than good. 
Here's a good rule for such cases : Do 
the job in three installments — one 
each year — and no installment unduly 
heavy. 

Keep all pruning tools sharp. Prune annually but 
not heavily. Never allow stock to prune your trees. 
Heavy pruning conduces to wood growth. 




THIS MAN IS 

MAKING THE 

MISTAKE OF 

LEAVING A STUB 



50 BIGGLK ORCHARD BOOK 

CUTTINGS. 

Drastic pruning strikes at the vitality of the tree. 

Never hurt the bark, bore holes, or drive nails into trees. 

Unpruned, uncultivated orchards are not money-makers. 

The orchard is not a profitable source of firewood, says Prof. 
Bailey. 

A heavy pruning is always followed bj' a heavy growth of 
suckers. 

The hatchet and the ax are not good pruning tools, says 
Farmer Vincent. 

There is such a thing as having the head or centre of a tree 
too open. A happj' medium is best. 

Special pruning directions for each kind of tree will be found 
in the chapters devoted to The Apple, The Pear, The Cherry, etc. 

Don't leave the pruning to ignorant or careless hired men. 
Do it right. The more the pruner knows, the better he can 
prune. 

It is a common notion that the branches gradually get higher 
from the ground as the tree continues to grow. The apparent 
gain in height is due solely to the increase in diameter of the 
limbs, which soon begin to crowd if sufficient space has not been 
left between them. The centres of the limbs will always remain 
the same distance apart. 

As regards the thinning out of the tops of the pear, apple, 
peach, and similar trees, no general rule can be given, as each 
tree presents a difTerent problem. A thick growth of new branches 
results in weak bearing shoots and spurs. When cutting back 
limbs on bearing trees the cut should be made just above a strong 
lateral, wherever possible. The tendency of the sap will then be 
to flow into the lateral and thus prevent the formation of the 
numerous branches which nearly always result when a so-called 
stub-cut is made. 

The orchardist should become well acquainted with the habit 
of growth of different varieties. A few kinds grow slowly and 
will not bear heavy pruning. Others are erect growers ; and 
some are spreading. One can not expect entireb^ to overcome 
such tendencies, but they may be corrected to a marked degree. 
The upright varieties may be spread somewhat by pruning to 
outside laterals or buds, and the spreading kinds may be con- 
tracted by cutting to laterals or buds which have an inward 
direction. And by cutting back the vigorous growers each 
season, the limbs are made stocky, thus in great measure doing 
away with drooping branches. 



PLATE V 



BALDWIN 





YELLOW NEWTOWN PIPPIN 



Chapter VI. 
CULTIVATION. FERTILIZATION. THINNING. 



If a man isnH willing to cnr^'y and feed his orchard, he 
7ieedn''t expect thoroushbred results. — Tim. 

The offices of tillage are several. Among the more 
important ones are : 

1. The setting free of plant food by increasing the 
chemical activities in the soil. 

2. The soil is made finer and hence presents greater 
surfaces to the roots, thus increasing the area from 
which the roots can absorb nutriment. 

3. The surface of the soil is kept in such condition 
that it immediately absorbs all the rain that falls 
during the summer, when it is apt to be dry. Little 
is lost by surface drainage. 

4. ISIoisture is conserved thereby. Where the sur- 
face remains undisturbed for weeks the soil becomes 
packed, so that the moisture from below readily passes 
to the surface and is evaporated, thus being lost to 
the growing crop. If the surface is kept light and 
loose by tillage, so that the capillarity is broken, but 
little of the soil moisture comes to the surface and 
evaporation is not so great. In this way nearly all 
the moisture remains in the soil, where it can be used 
by the roots. 

5. Thorough tillage has a tendency to cause deeper 
rooting of the roots. The surface of the soil is made 
drier by tillage during the early part of the season 
than it would otherwise be ; hence the roots go where 
the soil is moist. The advantage of deep rooting 
during drought is obvious. 

6. Weeds and grass are kept out 

(51) 



52 



BIGGIE ORCHARD BOOK 



CuiwTiVATiON OF YouNG Trees. — ^John A. Warder, 
in his book about apples, says : "If the ground, which 
has been appropriated to the orchard, be also occupied 
as farming land, as is usually done for a few years 
after planting, while the trees are small, it should be 
exclusively devoted to hoed crops ; by which is meant 
those that require constant cultivation and stirring of 
the soil. " That's the idea, exactly. While the trees 
are coming into bearing, and before they have need 
of all the land, we can kill two birds with one stone — 
i. e., give tillage to the trees and cultivation to a 




STRAWBERRIES IN YOUNG PEACH ORCHARD 

marketable crop, all at one operation. We can, for 
several years, grow strawberries in rows, or potatoes, 
or some other cultivated crop. What we ought not to 
do, is to grow hay or any of the grain crops ; nor 
should we let the land grow up to weeds. If we do 
not care to grow any crop on the land except trees 
(and some large orchardists prefer this method) , we 
should plow the ground in early spring, and then har- 
row it regularly every two weeks until about August 
first, — at which time some "cover crop " is sown. (See 
Chapter IX.) 




CUI<TlVATlON. FERTII^IZATION. THINNING 53 

CUI.TIVATION OF BEARING Trees. — It rarely pays 
to attempt the growing of any "side " crop in an old, 
bearing orchard. The tree roots need — and occupy — 
all the ground. Plow the orchard just as soon as the 
soil is dry enough in the spring. Four inches deep 
is about right. One year plow " up " to the tree rows ; 
the next year plow "away. 
Always plow in the same general 
direction. Endeavor to keep the 
surface about level during the 
growing season. Harrow the 
ground regularly and often. 

Stop cultivation about August ^^^ ^^^^^ jg ^ ^^^^ 
first — later if season is dry, orchard harrow 
earlier if season is wet. Seed down to some cover crop. 

Fai,i,-pIvOwing of Orchards. — vSome growers 
advocate a second plowing, to take place when regu- 
lar cultivation ceases. They say: "Plow up to the 
trees so as to facilitate drainage during fall and 
winter; this ridging -up also helps to protect the 
roots from cold." In some soils and climates the 
idea is perhaps sound ; on properly-drained ground 
not too far north, it seems unnecessary. After August 
plowing, the harrow and the cover crop should 
immediately follow, of course. 

Substitute for Cui^tivation. — The "mulch 
system" has its advocates, and its faults and advan- 
tages. Its main faults are : It furnishes a harboring 
place for mice and insects ; it does not stinuilate tree 
growth, if growth is wanted ; it favors fungous 
troubles. Its main advantages are : Lessened labor 
(which is somewhat offset by the necessity of mowing 
grass and weeds which may push through the nuilcli) ; 



54 



BIGGI<K ORCHARD BOOK 



lessened wood growth (which in some cases might be 
temporarily desirable) . 

Irrigation. — In regions of normal rainfall, arti- 
ficial watering of orchards is seldom practised or 
necessary. Cultivation, under normal conditions, 
conserves sufficient moisture for the trees' needs. 
In California and some other states, irrigation is 
desirable. Folks who need to practise this method 
should write to the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
Washington, D. C, and ask for free Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 116, entitled, "Irrigation in Fruit Growing. " 




GOOD TILLAGE, THIS 

Fertilization. — Fruit trees need the same ele- 
ments that are required by other crops — /. e., nitrogen, 
potash and phosphoric acid. Nitrogen is particularly 
efficacious in promoting growth. In fact, the amount 
of growth and the color of foliage are reliable guides 
for the application of nitrogen. Leaves of good size 
and dark color, and a wood growth of a foot or more 
on mature trees in one season, indicate sufficient 
nitrogen. 

Nitrogen is usually most easily, advantageously 
and cheaply applied in the form of legume cover crops 
(Chapter IX). Prof. Bailey, of Cornell, says: "In 



CUIvTiVATlON. FERTlIvIZATlON. THINNING 55 



orchards which are thoroughly tilled, the use of barn 
manures (which contain considerable nitrogen) , should 
generally be discouraged. Use tillage and late green 
crops to supply the nitrogen, — except perhaps for a 
season or two when an attempt 
is making to rejuvenate a 
neglected orchard." One of 
the main objections to stable 
manure is that it is apt to cause 
trees to grow too late in the fall. 

Potash is generally the most 
important element to be ap- 
plied directly to orchards, par- 
ticularly after the trees have 
reached bearing age. The 
available store of potash in the 
soil is much increased by the 
thorough tillage which has 
already been recommended, 
but in bearing orchards it should also be supplied 
every year in some commercial form. One of the best 
sources of potash for orchards is u nleache d hard-wood 
q^shes. It gives fruit a high color. Forty or fifty 
bushels to the acre is a good dressing. 

Muriate of potash is perhaps the best and most 
reliable form in which to secure potash at the present 
time, says Cornell Bulletin No. 72. Commercial 
samples generally contain about fifty per cent, of 
actual potash. Kainit or German potash salts is a 
muriate of potash containing about twelve per cent, 
of potash. An apple orchard in full bearing and upon 
loose soil may receive as high as 1000 pounds of muri- 
ate of potash per acre, but a normal and economical 




PEACHKS WELL THINNED. 
NO PROPS NEEDED HERE ! 



56 



BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 



application is from 500 to 700 pounds. Sulphate of 
potash is also thought to be a good form in which 
to buy potash. The commercial article will analyze 
fifty per cent, or less of actual potash. 

Phosphoric acid may be obtained in the form of a 
high-grade plain superphosphate (dissolved South 
Carolina rock) , in bone compounds, and Thomas slag. 
The plain superphosphate contains about sixteen or 
eighteen per cent, of phosphoric acid, and 300 to 500 
pounds per acre is a liberal and very useful dressing 
for bearing orchards. The bone fertilizers are always 
valuable. Those which are untreated give up their 
phosphoric acid slowly, unless they are very finely 
ground. Dissolved bone gives more immediate results. 
Thomas or basic slag has given good results in many 
tests, but it parts wath its fertility very slowly. Phos- 
phoric acid is rather less important in fruit plantations 
than potash, although this order is reversed in general 
farming. 




</> 



Oafs 


Corn 



milk 



1 t 



A little lesson in fertility : The size of these blocks 
shows the coDipai-ative quantities of soil fertility 
(nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid) removed from 
the farm by the selling of various home-grown prod- 
ucts. The growing of wheat or beef draws heaviest 
on the soil ; butter or fruits, lightest. Remem- 
ber, too, that most of the fertility removed by 
fruits is contained in the seeds or the pit, — the 



CUI.TIVATION. FERTILIZATION. THINNING 57 



KACHES TOO THICK ON THl 
EIGHTEEN-IXCH BRAXCH 



fruits themselves are largel}' 
water. And that brings us 
to the important subject of 
Thinning Fruits. — If 
we can annually reduce the 
number of seeds (or pits) 
which a tree endeavors to 
grow, we remove a great vital 

drain upon the strength of peaches too thick on this 
both tree and soil. "We save 
fertilizer, and we save tree vitality. Incidentalh', we 
accomplish equally important secondary results. By 
removing, say, one-half of the bab}' fruit on a tree, 
the remainder is enabled to grow to larger and more 
profitable size ; and next season the tree, not having 
exhausted itself the previous year, is in proper con- 
dition to bear another full crop. In brief, systematic 
thinning increases the value of the crop, and helps 
to insure full crops ez'erv year. 

The time to do the work is after the June drop is 
about over and before the seeds or pits have hardened. 
Often it is necessary to pull off, by hand, almost two- 
thirds of the fruit on a heavil}' set tree ; yet, strange 
as it may seem to those who have not tried it, the 

remaining one-third, at pick- 
ing time, will fill almost as 
many bushels as the fruit of 
a similar tree unthinned. 
Which would be most profit- 
able, ten bushels of "medi- 
ums ' ' or eight or nine bushels 
of ' ' extra large " ? It f re- 

quentlv pays to hire help to 
same branch properly 1 ^, ' ,, . . 

thinned do the thinning. 




58 BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 

NOTEBOOK JOTTINGS. 

Cultivation should be shallow — two or three inches at most. 

A rope or handle to the harrow helps to gritide the implement. 

If you grow^ cultivated crops in a young" orchard, never let 
the crop come closer than four feet to any tree trunk. 

Many orchardists say: "Don't plow or cultivate fruit trees 
while they are in blossom. May cause the embryo fruit to drop." 

When appljdng fertilizer, remember that a tree's root area is 
usually as large around, or larger, than its top area. Don't pile 
tree food around the trunk, — spread it farther out. 

Use a one-horse plow for the first two or three rounds along 
a tree row. Do this to all the rows. Then change to a two-horse 
plow, and finish the job. This makes easier, closer work. 

If jou decide to mulch, do it right. Don't permit yourself 
to mow the grass which pushes through the mulch, and then 
remove the clippings. I,et the mowed grass lie en the mulch. 

Whj' should cultivation usually cease about August first? 
So as to allow the new growth to stop growing and harden up in 
proper mature condition for the winter. The new wood on late 
cultivated trees is more apt to winter-kill. 

Muzzle the horses when plowing or cultivating around trees. 
Yes, and don't forget to pad the outer end of each whiffletree. 
Pad the outer edges of the harrow, too. But if a tree is acciden- 
tally " barked," bandage the wound with cow manure and burlap. 

Rules for thinning fruit: Remove all wormy, crooked or 
otherwise inferior specimens. Only the best specimen in each 
cluster should be allowed to remain. Remaining fruits should 
not be closer together than five or six inches apart. Properly 
thinned trees need no props. 

I,earn how to harrow an orchard so as to cover practically all 
the ground. Harrow lengthwise one time, crosswise another 
time, and diagonally the third time ; then repeat. A careful 
driver will thus leave only a few inches of untouched ground 
around each tree trunk — and a hand hoe easily finishes that. 

Sometimes it is desirable to "seed down" to grass, for a 
year or so, a thrifty, well-grown pear, apple or cherry orchard. 
Plum, peach or dwarf pear, never. And, in any case, such a 
course is seldom best until the trees have reached the bearing 
age; then, a temporary seeding down may be beneficial, — first, 
because it may induce quicker f ruitfulness by checking growth ; 
or, second, it may prevent the bark-burst or pear blight which a 
too rapid growth sometimes promotes. 



PLATE VI 




SPRAYED FRUIT 




NOT SPRAYED 



Chapter VII. 



SPRAYING. 



Spray, fartners, spray ivith care. 
Spray the apple, Peach and pear ; 
Spray for scab, and spray for blight. 
Spray, oh sPray, and do it right. 

Yes, that's the entire secret — "Do it right!" 
Every year there is a great deal of spraying that does, 
very little good. jVIany individuals go through the 
operation and simply waste time and money. I have 
observed that unless the operator is very careful there 
will be fruits and even large areas on the trees, left 
unsprayed. In many cases the operator sprays the 
lower limbs of the trees heav- 
ily, but the topmost twigs, and 
even the centre, are left dry, 
and then he wonders why 
spraying does not produce 
better results. 

If you are a fruit-grower — 
actual or prospective — make 
up your mind to the fact that 
a good spraying outfit is just 
as important to your success 
as a plow or a pruning saw. 
The kind of an outfit which 
you require depends, of course, 
on the size of your orchard. If 
there are only a few trees, of 

(59) 




FOR A FEW TREES, NOT 
TOO LARGE, THIS COM- 
PRESSED-AIR SPRAYER 
IS ALL RIGHT 



60 



BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 



medium size, perhaps one of the new-style, com- 
pressed-air, shoulder-strap sprayers (sold by seeds- 
men and implement dealers) will answer the purpose. 
Or if the trees are large or numerous, you may require 

a barrel or tank 
outfit, mounted on 
the farm wagon 
and worked by 
hand ; or perhaps 
your require- 
ments may neces- 
sitate one of the 
power outfits 
which are oper- 
ated by either a 
gasoline engine, 
geared connec- 
tion with wagon 
wheels, or compressed gas in cylinders. ^ 

Before deciding upon a pump, or buying one, take 
a bit of the same advice that Harriet once gave to 
me: "Write to advertisers in the Farm Journal or 
other farm papers, get their catalogs and price lists, 
and then study, compare, and decide." 

A good pump should work easily, maintain a 
steady spray from one or several nozzles, be simple 
in construction, have non-corrosive brass working 
parts, be durable and able to stand hard use, be 
easily taken to pieces for repair, have pipes properly 
arranged to prevent clogging, and be provided with 
an agitator which keeps the solution in vigorous 
motion and thoroughly distributed. Judging a pump 




POWER SPRAYING FOR LARGK 
ORCHARDS 



SPRAYING 61 

by cheapness alone often proves poor economy. For 
a very finely divided spray the Vermorel nozzle seems 
the best of any tested at the Station, says F. H. Hall, 
Geneva, N. Y., and that form should be chosen which 
is provided with a joint between ^ ^ 

nozzle chamber and elbow, to \ / 

allow easy access in case of \ / 

clogging. For spraying at V^w 

some distance the McGowen /m^^^^ 

nozzle is useful, and the double ^/f | lfiiL-|\ 
Vermorel is adapted for thor- / j|fif^p''|\ \ 
ough, rapid work. A light bam- ^^^^^j^^'^f^^^S 
boo pole, enclosing a brass tube ^^^^^^^^^^-"^^^^"'^ 

J Ci-i 1 -it. BARREL SPRAYER — 

and fitted with proper connec- suited to medium-sizk 
tions, seems the lightest and orchards 

simplest means for raising the nozzles ; this with a 
light framework tower erected in the wagon or cart 
upon which the operator may stand, will usually 
afford sufficient elevation for even tall trees. 

Spraying mixtures are divided into two classes : 
Fungicides and insecticides. Often, however, it is 
practicable to unite the two into one spray — and thus 
fight both fungus and insects at the one operation. 
A mixture of Bordeaux solution and an arsenical 
poison, is a good example of such a combination. 
Bordeaux mixture is the best and most useful of all 
known fungicides for general use. 

Bordeaux IMixture. — Four pounds of sulphate 
of copper, four pounds of quicklime, fifty gallons 
of water. First, dissolve the copper sulphate. The 
easiest, quickest way to do this, is to put it into a 
coarse cloth bag and suspend the bag in a receptacle 



62 



BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 




COJPEC SULPHATE LI 



partl}^ filled with water. Next, slake the lime in a 
tub, and strain the luilk of lime thus obtained into 
another receptacle. Now get 
someone to help you, and, with 
buckets, siinnltancously pour 
the two liquids into the spray- 
ing barrel or tank. Lastly, add 
MAKING BORDEAUX sufficieut Water to make fifty 
gallons. ( For making this mixture on a large scale, 
an elevated platform — with pipes, etc., as shown in 
cut — is very handy.) 'Tis safe to use this full- 
strength Bordeaux on almost 
all foliage, — except on peach 
trees, Japanese plums, and 
similar tender trees. For 
these it is wiser to iise the 
following half-strength mix- 
ture : 

Half-strength Bordeaux : 
Two pounds of copper sul- 
phate, two pounds of quicklime, fift}' gallons of water. 
Bordeaux Combined with Insect Poison. — By 
adding one-quarter pound of Paris green to each fifty 
gallons of either of the Bordeaux formulas, the mix- 
ture becomes a combined fungicide a)id insecticide. 
Or, instead of Paris green, add about two pounds of 
arsenate of lead (an excellent commercial form of this, 
called " Disparene, " is for sale by seedsmen). The 
advantages of arsenate of lead, over Paris green, are, 
first, it is not apt to burn foliage even if used in 
rather excessive quantities ; and, second, it "sticks" 
to the foliage, etc., better and longer. I believe that 
it is the best form in which to use arsenical poison. 




ELEVATED PLANT FOR 

MAKING BORDEAUX ON A 

LARGE SCALE 



SPRAYING 63 

Insecticides. — Sometimes it may be desirable to 
apply a treatment for insects alone, without the bother 
of making the regulation Bordeaux. Here are a few 
standard formulas suited for chewing insects : 

Paris green : Two pounds of quicklime, one-quarter 
pound of Paris green, fifty gallons of water. Keep 
mixture well agitated while spraj-ing. (Xot so safe 
as arsenate of lead on tender foliage of peach, etc. j 

Arsenate of lead : This can be made at home, as 
follows : Take twelve ounces of acetate of lead, four 
ounces of arsenate of soda, and fifty gallons of water. 
Put the acetate of lead into a gallon of water in a 
wooden pail ; in another wooden pail put the arsenate 
of soda in two quarts of water, \^'hen both are 
dissolved, pour them together into the spray tank 
containing the required amoimt of water. A white 
precipitate of lead arsenate immediately forms in the 
tank and the mixture is ready to be applied. This 
remains in suspension longer than Paris green. 

For Sucking Insects. — Xow we come to another 
class of insecticides, suited to insects which suck a 
tree's juices but do not chew. Arsenic will not kill 
such i)ests ; therefore we nmst resort to solutions 
which kill by contact. Here are some of the best- 
known recipes of this kind : 

Kerosene emulsion : One-half pound of hard or 
one quart of soft soap ; kerosene, two gallons ; boiling 
soft water, one gallon. If hard soap is used, slice it 
fine and dissolve in water by boiling ; add the boil- 
ing solution (away from the fire) to the kerosene, and 
stir or violently churn for from five to eight minutes, 
until the mixture assumes a creamy consistency. If 



64 BIGGIvE ORCHARD BOOK 

a spray pump is at hand, pump the mixture back upon 
itself with considerable force for about five minutes. 
Keep this as a stock. It must be further diluted with 
soft water before using. One part of emulsion to 
fifteen parts of water, is about right for lice. 

Whale-oil soap solution : Dissolve one pound of 
whale-oil soap in a gallon of hot water, and dilute 
with about six gallons of cold water. This is a good 
application for the young lice of the oyster-shell and 
scurfy scale (see Chapter VIII) , or for aphis. 

Tobacco tea : This solution may be prepared by 
placing five pounds of tobacco stems in a water-tight 
vessel, and then covering them with three gallons of 
hot water. Allow to stand several hours ; dilute the 
liquor by adding about seven gallons of water. Strain 
and apply. Good for lice (aphis) on foliage. 

SpeciaIv Remarks. — No attempt has been made 
in this chapter to cover the various fungous troubles 
and insect pests which do damage to orchards and 
fruit, — such topics being more appropriately treated 
in the chapters on The Apple, The Pear, etc. There 
you will find special directions which fit the special 
pests which prey on each kind of fruit. Scale insects 
have a chapter all to themselves. 

Tim wants me to say that fungicides are not cures, 
but preventives. "Therefore," he concludes, "the 
early bird catches the germ." By which he means, 
of course, that the sprayer should begin early in the 
season, — before fungous trouble has really beg^n. 
** Yes, " adds Harriet, " and he should repeat the good 
work several times, at intervals of two or three weeks 
apart. ' ' 



SPRAYING 65 

HEl<PFUIy HINTS. 

Bordeaux mixttire is best when used a few hours after being" 
mixed. 

After spraying, pump air or water through the pump and 
hose to clean them of the mixture, so that it shall not needlessly 
corrode them. 

All spraying mixtures should be constantly agitated when in 
use. If this is not done, some of the ingredients (particularly 
Paris green) are apt to settle to bottom of tank or barrel. 

A properly thrown spray is a fine mist, like steam ; it 
shouldn't be a fall of raindrops. It should settle on a tree like 
dew, and there need be very little "drip" upon the ground. 

Never spray trees while they are in blossom. No need to do 
it, and it would kill the orchardist's best friend — the bees. 
Without bees, blossoms would not be properly cross-fertilized. 

Don't try to cover all sides of a large tree at one operation. 
Take one side along the row, then when the wind is favorable 
come back on the other side (for lack of this precaution many 
trees are half-dead on that "other" side). 

If rain falls immediately after an application, it must be 
repeated as soon as the plants are fairly dry again. But if the 
mixture once gets dried on the foliage it will adhere very well in 
spite of rains. From one to two hours of sunshine will dry it 
satisfactorily. 

A few fruit-growers favor the dust method of spraying. 
Instead of liquids they use powdered forms of insecticides and 
fungicides, blown into the trees by means of special apparatus. 
The idea doubtless has some good points, but a liquid spray 
seems to suit most folks best. 

A. W. Cheever tells in Farm Journal of a contrivance that 
will be a boon to the man who holds the sprayer rod, — consisting 




of an extension to prevent the liquid getting on the hands. The 
pipe has a rod attached set off about four inches, for grasping by 
the hands. This does not get wet as does the tube. 

Straining Bordeaux mixture : No matter what quantity of 
mixture is to be made up, it is necessary to strain the materials 
through a good strainer. The best type of strainer is made of 
brass wire, with eighteen or twenty meshes to the inch. If all 
the copper solution and milk of lime are separately strained, it 




66 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

will not be necessary to strain the Bordeaux mixture itself. 
Some very good strainers made of copper are on the market and 
may be obtained from the makers of spray pumps. One of the 
best, which can be made at home, is in the form of a box. 

Extra-strong- Bordeaux mixtures : Some spraying experts 
advocate the following extra-strength formulas : Six pounds of 
copper sulphate, four pounds of qviicklime, fifty gallons of water. 
Or, five pounds of copper sulphate, five pounds of quicklime, 
fifty gallons of water. I think these are too strong. 

Here is a picture of a disc-shaped spray- 
ing-rod shield. 'Tis a handy little contriv- 
ance for preventing the spray-drip from run- 
ning down the rod on to the hands. Can be 
made of metal or wood, tightly fitted. 

It has been established that in the case of the apple crop, 
spraying will protect from fifty to seventy-five per cent, of the 
fruit, which would otherwise be wormy, and that in actual 
marketing experience the price has been enhanced from $1 to 
$2.50 per barrel, and this at a cost of only about ten cents per 
tree for labor and material. 

In the case of one orchard in Virginia, only one-third of 
■which was sprayed, the result was an increase in the yield of 
sound fruit in the portion treated, of nearly fifty per cent., and 
an increase of the value of this fruit, over the rest, of one 
hvmdred per cent. The loss from not having treated the other 
two-thirds was estimated at $2,500. 

It must be remembered that most spraying materials are 
poisonous and should be so labeled. If ordinary precautions are 
taken there is no danger, to man or team, attending their appli- 
cation. The wetting, which can not entireh' be avoided, is not at 
all dangerous, on account of the great dilution of the mixture. 
Nor is properly spraj-ed fruit unsafe to eat. 

In large orchards much time may be saved by preparing and 
keeping on hand separate stock solutions of the lime and copper, 
instead of constantly making up a new batch. Dissolve forty 
povmds of copper sulphate in as many gallons of water. A gallon 
of the solution will thus contain one pound of the copper salt. 
In a similar way a stock sohition of lime may be prepared. Keep 
both solutions tightly covered and thoroughly stir before dipping 
frotn either. It is then a very simple matter to take four gallons 
of the copper solution, four of the lime, and dilute to the requisite 
amount, — according to the regulation Bordeaux formula. 



PLATE VII 



LEAF-BLIGHT 
AND LEAF 




SA.V JOSE 0.\ PEAR 



Chapter VIII. 

SCALE PESTS: SAX JOSE, OYSTER SHELL. 
SCURFY, ETC. 



If hogs or cattle could multiply as fast as scale lice, human 
betnss would soon be crouded off the ^a^YA.— Dorothy Tucker. 

The most serious insect pest which confronts the 
orchardist of todaj-, is undoubtedly the San Jose scale 
louse. It came to this countr\- on nurser\- stock from 
Japan, and first took root in San Jose, Cal. It is sup- 
posed that it was brought east to Xew Jersey about 
twenty years ago, and it has gradually spread until 
now it menaces the larger part of the United States. 

In a single season a female may become the pro- 
genitor of 1, 60S, 040, 200 individuals. The louse hides 
under a scale that is impervious to most insecticides. 

It attacks all orchard 
trees, roses, small fruit 
bushes, and manj- lawn 
shrubs and vines. 

The louse can crawl rap- 
idly, and is often carried by 
birds, insects and heavj- 
winds. 

The insects are too small 
to be easily seen with the 
naked e^e, but the scale can 
be seen. Bark of affected trees has a grayish or ashy 
appearance, in bad cases. It is the louse and not the 
scale that does the harm. 

(67) 




ADri-T FEMALE SAX .TO:^i, 

SCALE WITH VOUNG 

(enlarged, as SEEX 

THROCGH A MAGXIFYING 

GLASS ^ 



68 BIGGI.E; ORCHARD BOOK 

Now search all of your sick trees, and here is a 
description that will help yon : The San Jose scale 
is rather flat, round, pressed close to the bark, and 
often is grayish, or resembles the bark of the twig in 
color ; when fully grown is about one-eighth of an 
inch in diameter. At or near the middle of each scale 
is a small, round, slightly elongated, black point 
or nipple. Badly infected trees are covered so 
thickly that the bark is completely hidden. Such 
trees must be destroyed or severely pruned and 
thoroughly sprayed. A magnifying glass (the Farm 
Journal folks sell a good one for fifty cents) should be 
a part of every modern orchardist's equipment. Now 
remember : A rounds dark scale with a cejitral dot or 
nipple. That's the idea, in a nutshell. (When found 
on the fruit, each scale is usually surrounded by a 
reddish ring. See colored plate VII.) 

The best time to fight the San Jose is in the early 
spring while the leaves are off and before the buds 
swell, but if your trees are badly scaled over, and 
half dead, it will never pay to try to save such trees ; 
dig them up at once and burn every vestige of them. 
Do not lose a day in this ; noiv is the word. Near 
every badly affected tree will be found other trees that 
show the scale to the close observer ; these may be 
left standing until winter. Then, soon after the 
leaves drop, spray the trees ; and, if you wish to be 
thorough, follow this with a second spraying in early 
spring before the buds open. 

Since the Farm Journal, four or five years ago, 
brought the lime-sulphur-salt spray to the attention 
of fruit-growers east of the Rocky mountains, many 



SCAI^E PESTS 



69 



other things have been tried, but to little purpose. 
The lime, sulphur and salt mixture is still the 
sovereign remedy on the Pacific coast, no other 
material being used there to any extent as a scale spray ; 
and elsewhere in the United States it is the best 
thing yet found. It is effective wherever used, if 
directions are followed, and it is safer to use than 
the oil remedies sometimes recommended. 




AN ILLINOIS LIME-SULPHUR-SALT OUTFIT. 
STEAM-COOKING IN ELEVATED BARRELS 

Farm Journal's winter formula for making the 
lime -sulphur spray: "Mix forty pounds of fresh, 
unslaked lime in sixty gallons of water, and after 
stirring in twenty pounds of sulphur, boil the mix- 
ture one and one -half hours. Strain through wire 
sieve or netting, and apply while mixture is still 
warm. A good, high - pressure pump is essential to 
satisfactory work. Coat e\ery particle of the tree. 
The salt is purposely omitted, for it does not seem 
to do much good and it renders the mixture harder 
to manage." 



70 biggIvE; orchard book 

Dr. Funk's formula for the lime, sulphur and salt 
mixture is as follows : ' ' To make 150 gallons, take 
sixty -five pounds of best stone lime, fifty pounds of 
sulphur and thirty-five pounds of salt. INIake a paste 
of the sulphur and have from fifteen to twenty gallons 
of boiling water in an iron caldron over a brisk 
fire. Into this put the lime, immediately adding the 
sulphur paste. This is rapidly cooked, either thirty, 
forty or fifty minutes, or until it looks as red as 
canned tomatoes. It must be vigorously stirred all the 
while, when it will get as smooth as glass. Then add 
a sufficient amount of hot water to make 150 gallons. " 
The month of ]\Iarcli is the best month in which 
to spray, if only one application is given. Here is 
J. H. Hale's way with the lime, sulphur and salt 
formula: " Twenty pounds of best lime dmnped into 
boiling water will generate a heat that will generally 
melt down fifteen pounds of sulphur flour. That 
should be dumped right in after the lime. Then by 
steam or fire heat keep this mass boiling thirty to forty 
minutes ; add water to make fifty gallons ; fifteen 
pounds of salt (to make the mass stick to the trees 
longer) , and you have the best lime-sulphur-salt 
mixture that can be made. ' ' 

Prof. S. A. Forbes gives the following directions for 
making what is known as the Oregon wash : ' ' Pro- 
vide thirty pounds of best unslaked lime, thirty pounds 
of powdered sulphur, three pounds of blue vitriol, and 
water sufficient to make 100 gallons. Heat five to 
seven gallons of water in an iron kettle, and, while 
this is heating, weigh out the lime and sift the sulphur, 
keeping the two separate. When the water is ready 



SCAI,K PESTS 71 

to boil, put in the lime, and as soon as this begins to 
slake pour in the sxilphur, one man vigorously stirring 
the mass during this operation. A violent boiling 
immediately takes place, and water — preferably hot — 
should be kept at hand to pour on the boiling mass to 
prevent its running over the kettle. Use as little 
water as possible, continuously stir, and do not allow 
the mixture to boil over. When the lime has finished 
slaking, the violent boiling ceases, and the mass 
should be thick and stiff. Keep it steadily boiling for 
an hour. The mixture becomes thinner as it boils 
down, and changes from a deep orange-red through 
several shades of yellow, ending with a deep amber 
color. When it reaches this color we usually consider 
it time to add the blue vitriol. Then fill the kettle 
with hot water, thoroughly stir, strain one-half the 
contents into a fifty-gallon barrel and fill the barrel 
with hot water. Spray this upon the dormant trees 
immediately." 

OysTER-SheIyIv Bark-I^ouse. — The most common 
scale-insect of the apple, without doubt, is the oyster- 
shell bark-louse. Although everywhere 
present, and sometimes quite conspicu- 
ous, it most often attacks trees that for 
some reason are unhealthy, and there- 
fore poorly fitted to support the extra 
drain put upon them by the pest. 

The scales of these insects are elon- oyster-shell 
gated, shaped something like oyster- i'-^^k-louse 
shells, with the cast skins at the smaller full size) 
ends. They are brown in color. Underneath a scale 
will be found a cluster of yellowish-whitish eggs. 




72 BIGGLrE ORCHARD BOOK 

plainly to be seen through an ordinary magnifying 
glass. The scales are about one-eighth inch in 
length, or smaller, and they usually cluster together 
as shown in the illustration on page 71. 

About the middle of May (later or earlier, according 
to latitude) the eggs under the scales hatch into tiny 
lice which appear as mere specks to the unaided eye. 
These lice, for a few days, move around on the bark. 
Remedies : First, give the tree a tonic and a good 
rub-down. Fertilizers, pruning and cultivation will 
help the tree to better general health ; and a brisk 
scrubbing of trunk and main limbs with a very stiff 
brush or scraper, will get rid of many of the scales. 
An old broom with the brush cut short makes an 
excellent scrubbing implement. Keep it wet with 
whale-oil soap solution. Then, sometime in ]\Iay, 
watch for the hatched-out lice. AVhen they appear, 
get out the spray pump and thoroughly spray the 
entire tree with whale-oil soap solution, made as 
follows : Dissolve one pound of whale-oil soap in a 
gallon of hot water, and dilute with about 
six gallons of cold water. (Note : The oyster- 
shell louse is especially fond of the lilac. ) 

Scurfy Bark -Louse. — Another scale 
insect, that may be classed with the oyster- 
shell bark-louse so far as its economic 
importance is concerned, is the scurfy bark- 
louse of the pear and apple. This scale is 
white in color, and, like the oyster-shell pest, 
is most apt to work on poorly fertilized and 
poorly cultivated trees. The scurfy scale is readily 
recognized on account of its whitish, cotton-like 




SCAI,E PESTS 73 

appearance, and its oblong shape. The eggs beneath 
the scales are in clusters, purplish in color, and they 
hatch out about the same time as the oyster-shell eggs. 
Remedies : Same as for oyster- shell bark -louse. 
(vSpecial note : There is no better remedy for a/l scale 
insects, than the lime-sulphur-salt spray. Those who 
use it on their trees in the winter, are all right. But 
when tree growth is beginning, it is better to fight 
03-ster-shell and scurfy bark-lice with whale-oil solu- 
tion. Or kerosene emulsion may be used.) 

Other Scai.E Pests. — A variety called the "plum 
scale" is sometimes found on plum trees (and occa- 
sionally on quince, apple, pear, cherry and peach 
trees) . Of this scale pest Prof. Slingerland says : 
"They remind one of small halved peas colored dark 
brown and stuck on the branches. ' ' They belong to 
the scale family named Lecanimns^ several species of 
which are serious pests in citrus orchards. 

Olive and citrus fruit-growers in California, Florida, 
etc., have a long list of scale troubles of their own. 
The same remedies advocated for other scale pests 
will prove equally successful when applied to the 
plum or citrus or olive scales. 

FOOT notes. 

For the linie-sulphur-salt wash the pump should have brass 
working- parts ; nothing should be of copper. 

I^adybirds are among- the most active destroyers of scale 
insects, and the most abundant of these beetles is the twice- 
stabbed ladybird. 

All dead wood and thick brush should be cut out before 
attempting to spray ; and all branches that are too high to reach 
and cover with the spray liquid should also be cut off. 



74 



BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 



Protect the hands by coating- them with vaseline or by -wear- 
ing- g-loves — rubber being the least injured by the linie-sulphur- 
salt -wash. Cover the horses. Spray only with the wind, if it 
be too strong to spray against it. It is impossible to throw the 
spray satisfactorily against a very strong- breeze. 

Special note : Many folks do not fully realize that the lime- 
sulphur-salt spray is a splendid f ung-icide as well as a louse killer. 
Therefore its use may -well take the place of the earlier Bordeaux 
applications, before the buds have opened. (Full-strength lime- 
sulphur-salt is not suited for spraying- on trees in leaf.) 

A fifty-gallon barrel makes a 
very convenient unit for even the 
most extensive spraying- opera- 
tions, says M. B. Waite. Here is 
a plan of lime-sulphur-salt boiling- 
plant of six barrels, rather similar 
to the model of J. H. Hale. (Fig. I 
shows general view ; fig. II shows 
details of one barrel.) The boiler 
rests on the ground, the barrels 
and the water-supply pipe on an 
elevated platform abovit eight feet 

from the ground. The outlet is terminated by about 
three feet of flexible hose, through which the finished 
mixture can be piped to the wagon tank as wanted. 
The steam is conducted directly into the bottom of 
each barrel, escaping into the liquid through the per- 
forated crosspieces, and then bvtbbling up and out. 
The water inlet and outlet pipes have no connection, 
of course, with the steam pipes. Stop-cocks should 
be located as shown — fifteen in all. (A scientific 
friend of mine suggests that a steam coil in the 
bottom of each barrel, throvigh -which steam could 
pass and then retiirn to the boiler, would be more economical of 
steam and of fuel. He says that it's wasteful to allow the steam 
to escape in the barrels. — J. B.) 




HALE'S STEAM 
COOKER 




OB 'WATER INLCT 

FIG. II. 
BARREL 
DETAILS 



PLATE VIII 




ORrc 

lMrERI\I, 




NORTHERN 
SPY 



Chapter IX. 

COVER CROPS. 
FALL, WINTER AND SPRING CARE. 



Orchards, as -n'ell as folks, need winter overcoats. — John Tucker. 

The seven important advantages of a cover crop 
in the orchard are : 1st, to supply nitrogen and 
organic matter or humus to the soil ; 2d, to improve 
the mechanical condition of the soil, i. e. , to lighten 
a heavy soil or make a light soil more retentive of 
moisture ; 3d, to protect the roots from being injured 
by deep freezing ; 4th, to prevent the fine particles of 
soil and plant food from being washed away during 
the fall, winter and spring ; 5th, to catch and hold 
snow and leaves ; 6th, to help check late growth of 
trees in the fall, and thus aid wood growth to harden 
up for winter ; and, 7th, to pump the surplus water 
out of the soil in early spring so that the ground may 
sooner get into condition for plowing. 

An orchard cover crop is a crop sown to cover the 
ground during that portion of the year when very 
little or not any growth is being made by fruit trees. 
If a man makes no effort to cover the ground with 
economic plants, then Nature steps in and starts 
weeds and grass in the endeavor to protect the soil. 
Cover crops are usually sown just before the last 
cultivation of an orchard — about August first. Some- 
times as early as July, or as late as early September. 

There are practically two classes of plants which 
the orchardist may use for the purpose of securing- 

(75) 



76 biggIvE; orchard book 

a cover crop, says John Craig, Cornell Experiment 
Station, New York. These are : the nitrogenous class 
on the one hand and the non-nitrogenous class on the 
other. The difference between these two is marked 
by the power of the plants of the nitrogenous class to 
appropriate the free nitrogen of the air and store it 
up in their tissues in such a way that it is more or less 
readily available to the .succeeding crops. Prominent 
among plants which have this property are the clovers, 
peas, beans and vetches. These are the farmers' 
friends — the "nitrogen collectors." 

Prof. C. P. Close, Delaware, says: — "The amounts 
of seed per acre, and crop or combination of crops 
which may be used, are about as follows : Rye, one to 
one and one-half bushels ; cowhorn turnips, one to 
two pounds ; dwarf Essex rape, eight to ten pounds ; 
red, mammoth or crimson clover, fifteen to twenty 
pounds ; cowpeas, ninety pounds ; soy beans, ninety 
pounds ; hairy vetch, forty to fifty pounds ; hairy 
vetch, forty pounds, and rye, thirty pounds ; hairy 
vetch, twenty pounds, and cowpeas or soy beans, 
forty-five pounds ; hairy vetch, twenty pounds, and 
turnips, twelve ounces ; hairy vetch, twenty pounds, 
crimson clover, eight pounds, and turnips, eight 
ounces ; hairy vetch, twenty pounds, and red, mam- 
moth or crimson clover, eight pounds ; turnips, eight 
ounces, rye, twenty pounds, and red, mammoth or 
crimson clover, four pounds ; turnips, twelve ounces, 
and crimson clover, eight pounds ; turnips, twelve 
ounces, and soy beans or cowpeas, forty pounds ; 
dwarf Essex rape, four pounds, and rye, one bushel ; 
rape, four pounds, soy beans or cowpeas, forty pounds, 



COVER CROPS ; WINTER CARE 17 

and rye, twenty pounds ; alfalfa, fifteen pounds, and 
red, mammoth or crimson clover, seven and one-half 
pounds. ' ' 

Many other combinations may be used successfully. 
The object should be to use such a mixtiire of crops 
that a part at least shall live over winter. A few of 
the foregoing- combinations contain all fall crops and 
for that reason are not so desirable as though they 
contained a part of those that live through the winter 
and grow in the spring. Oats, one bushel, crimson 
clover, ten pounds, is by many fruit-growers con- 
sidered a good combination. The oats die down when 
cold weather comes, and help protect the living 
clover. 

Fai^i,, Winter and Spring Care. — This consists 
of several things, the most important of which are : 
Protection against injury by mice or rabbits ; protec- 
tion against sun-scald ; protection against live stock ; 
careful oversight of drains and drainage ; safeguard- 
ing, so far as possible, against late spring frosts at 
blossoming time ; and hunting for borers. Hints on 
these and other subjects will be found in the following 

HElyPS FOR FRUIT-GROWERS. 

A bolt put in, now, may save nine bushels of fruit later. Split 
trees and dangerous crotches need attention. Bolts are cheap. 
Use 'em. 

Winter and early spring afford excellent chances to find and 
destroy all cocoons, egg clusters, etc., on fruit trees. Make a 
practise of doing this each year. It pays. 

Be carefvil not to let the cover crop grow so late in the spring 
that it pulls all the moisture out of the soil. Rye, etc., should 
be plowed under befoi-e it becomes tall and woody. 

Cows, sheep, etc., have no good excuse for being in an 
orchard at any time. There's always danger that they will bark, 
the trees, — especially when green forage is absent. 



78 BIGGI<K ORCHARD BOOK 

When fall comes, be sure to clean up all trash in the orchard. 
Mow the weeds (there shouldn't be any). Burn all rubbish. 
Then the owls, hawks, cats and crows can readily see and catch 
all field mice. 

Trees which have been completely girdled by mice or rab- 
bits, can often be saved by means of bridge grafting. (See Chapr 
ter II.) Partially-girdled trees should be bandaged with cow 
manure and burlap. 

An experienced orchardist says that it is an excellent plan 
to leave the clippings under the trees in the winter when prun- 
ing an orchard, so that mice and rabbits will eat such tender 
twigs instead of gnawing at the tree trunk itself. 

Dormant buds : Sometimes every fruit bud or blossom on a 
tree will seem to be killed by cold, and jet — to most folks' sur- 
prise — a moderate crop of fruit results. How? By means of the 
dormant (undeveloped) buds on the trees. When normal buds 
are killed, the trees often force forward the dormant ones in 
time partially to supply the deficiency. 

Good drainage in the orchard is essential to success. X,ike 
human beings, fruit trees can not stand wet feet. In the fall a 
furrow-ditch plowed between tree rows, or wherever needed, 
may help to insure better drainage conditions during the winter 
and early spring. See that tile drain outlets do not become 
obstructed ; to keep out small animals, fasten wire netting over 
each outlet. 

Fruit buds : These are apt to be more plump than leaf buds, 
and are therefore usually easily recognized. Slice a fruit bud 
through the centre, lengthwise ; if it is alive, the interior is 
greenish-yellowish in appearance; if dead, the heari is black- 
£ned, even though the remainder of interior looks all right. 
Frozen buds should be thawed out for several days before 
making this test. 

Severe pruning-back is the most effective treatment for badly 
frozen very young peach trees, etc. Moderate cutting-back is 
best for less seriously affected young trees, and also for badly 
injured old peach trees, etc. Citrus trees, etc., will often sprout 
again from a mere stump. Give all frozen trees a fair chance ; 
never pull out a tree until it has had an opportunity to recover. 
Nature sometimes performs wonders in this line in one or two 
seasons. 

Farmers who have been putting axle grease on their trees to 
protect them from rabbits, sheep and vermin, should not do so. 
It is not a good plan. The sun shining on the greasy bark drives 
the grease into the tree and may kill it. The best thing to use is 
beef blood, such as is easily obtained in any slaughter house ; 
then mix it thoroughly with clay and wood ashes. The ashes 
act as a germicide, while the clay forms a paste which prevents 
the blood being readily washed off by the rains. 



COVKR CROPS ; WINTER CARE 79 

Blossom knowledge: 1. Scarcely one fruit blossom in ten sets 
fruit, even in the most favorable seasons and with the most pro- 
ductive varieties.^ 2. Trees making a very vigorous growth may 
drop their blossoms. 3. Brown rot, apple or pear scab, and pear 
blight may kill the blossoms. 4. Frost injury to blos.soms is of 
all degrees. Even flowers which appear to be uninjured may be 
so weakened that they can not set fruit. 5. Rain during the 
blooming season prevents the setting of fruit, chiefly by destroy- 
ing the vitality of the pollen, injuring the stigma, or by pre- 
venting fertilization because of the low temperature. The 
washing of pollen from the anthers seldom causes serious loss, 
6. If a tree stands alone and does not bear fruit, it may .be 
self-sterile. 

Sun-scald is usually caused by alternate freezing and thaw- 
ing, which eventually bursts the bark on the southward side of 
the'tree trunk near the ground. Sometimes, how- 
ever, it is caused by the sun striking too hot m 
summer on exposed branches or trunk. _ It is a 
serious trouble in some orchards and with some 
varieties, and the only sure remedy is to shade the 
trunk in some manner. Wrappings of wood veneer 
or laths answer the purpose, generally speaking. 
Besides, such wrappings fence out mice and rabbits. 
I earnestly advise my brother orchardists to avail 
themselves of this double protection. Wood-veneer 
tree protectors mav be purchased for about $5 per 
1000, and will last several years. Protection against 
sun -scald and rabbit injury is especially necessary 
for young trees. veneer 

TREE 

Abel F. Stevens says:— Spring frosts have protector 
caused an immense amount of damage. W'e have 
been very successful in combating the baneful effects of killing 
frosts by the following method : Mix coal-tar with sawdust and 
old straw and place in heaps on the windward side. When 
heavy frosts threaten, set these heaps afire. They will burn for 
many hours, making a dense smoke which completely protects 
blossoms or fruit." An excellent idea, surely. In this connection 
I would sav that some western orchardists are using an electric 
automatic alarm thermometer, to give warning at night when 
frost damage threatens. This saves the owner the trouble of 
sitting up nights. The thermometer is fastened to a post in the 
orchard, and wires run from it to an alarm bell in the house 
bedroom. If the cold reaches the danger point, the bell rings, 
and the fruit-grower can then hasten out and light his smudges. 
I^et me say, further, that sprinkling or irrigating an orchard 
when frost threatens, is often an excellent preventive of frost 
injury. 

Beware of borers: Various kinds of borers — fat, whitish 
worms — attack the different varieties of fruit trees ; there are 
the apple-tree borers, the peach-tree borers, etc.. etc. It will be 
wise to begin looking for signs of these pests the fall or spring 




80 BIGGI^K ORCHARD BOOK 

following the setting of the trees, and, during the life of the 
trees, this annual inspection should be continued. Carry a 
sharp, sniall-bladed knife, a piece of stout, flexible wire, and a 
trowel or spade. Examine each trunk near the ground for traces 
of " sawdust" or " gum " (the last, of course, will be found only 
on trees like the peach and cherry) . Either or both of these signs, 
when found, show that one or more borers probably kirk within. 
So, down you'go on your knees ; the soil is pulled away from the 
trunk to a depth of several iiiches — and the war is on ! With 
^^^^^ knife and wire the borers' burrows are 

ySTf^TJ^Pf^^ probed until the enemy is found and 
killed. Then on to the next tree. A 
few careful cuts in the bark do the tree 
BORER £^j. jggg injury than the damage an 

unmolested borer will do. vSo don't be afraid. (Note : Some 
species of borers — notably the flat-headed apple-tree borer and 
the plum-tree borer — often attack the upper part of the trunk, 
and even the lower portions of the main limbs. The peach-tree 
borer and the round-headed apple-tree borer usually attack 
the trunk at a point close to the ground.) Among preventive 
measures are several methods which are sometimes successfully 
used to keep borers out of the trees : Mound up the earth to a 
height of a foot or more around each tree, in May, and then 
allow the earth to remain until vSeptember. Or, protect the 
lower part of each trunk (during the same period of time) with 
closeb-wrapped building paper. This paper should extend an 
inch or so below the ground surface, and about two feet above 
it, and be securely tied in place. Or try this wash : Dissolve 
one pound of hard soap in two gallons of boiling water ; then 
add one pint of crude carbolic acid, an ounce of Paris green, and 
enough lime to make a thin paste ; apply with a brush to trunks 
and larger branches of trees ; if bark is rough, scrape trunks 
before applying wash. 



Chapter X. 
THE APPLE. 

If there^s a better fruit than an apple iPs a>ioiher apple. — Tim. 

This Splendid fruit is almost as ' ' old as the hills. ' ' 
King Solomon appreciated good apples. And charred 
remains of apples have been found in prehistoric 
dwellings in Europe. Southwestern Asia is where 
this fruit originated. Harriet says that it is the ' ' best 
job that Asia ever did, " and I agree with her. 

Propagation. — Apples can be propagated either 
by grafting or budding, the former method being 
most commonly used by nurserymen. Whip grafts 
on seedling roots are often employed. But there are 
several ways of obtaining good trees for setting. jVIy 
friend, Wilnier Atkinson, says: "If I were to plant 
another apple orchard, I should buy Northern Spy 
nursery trees, set them, and cut off and cleft -graft 
(after the tree is set) each trunk at the point where 
the first branches are wanted, — using scions cut from 
thrifty bearing trees of knoicn variety and productive- 
ness.''' To Mr. Atkinson's excellent plan I might add 
that if a man has time, and can't afford to buy the 
trees, he might grow Spy seedling trees and then 
graft them — thus saving the nursery bill. 

SEI.ECTING Nursery Trees. — Two-year-old, 
straight, medium - size, healthy trees are about right. 
See that they are not branched too high ; three or four 
feet should be the limit. 

(81) 



82 



BIGGI.E) ORCHARD BOOK 



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Soii^S. — Almost any soil will do for the apple 
orchard, provided that it be somewhat elevated and 

sufficiently well 
drained. Very 
light sand, or 
swampy muck, 
would be least 
desirable; a 
loamy clay soil, 
most desirable. 
Varieties 
Which are 
Often Sei.e- 

MAY'S PROMISE S T E R I Iv E . 

* ' Bellflower, Primate, Spitzenburg, Willow Twig, 
Winesap, " says Cornell Experiment Station. Some 
other varieties might be added to this list. In fact, 
the only safe way is to mix the planting, and to 
include some of the more self-fertile-blossom kinds, — 
such as ' ' Baldwin, Ben Davis, Fallawater, Jannet, 
Oldenburg, Rhode Island Greening, 
Astrachan, Smith's Cider, " etc. (And 
even some of these are self-sterile in 
some localities and under some cir- 
cumstances ! So I again say, ' ' Mix. ") 
Pruning. — Apple trees should be 
■cut back (so as not to grow too high) , 
thinned out (so as to let sunshine and 
air into the head) , and trimmed up 
(to permit of necessary horse cultiva- 
tion) . For general pruning directions, see Chapter V. 
Moderate, regular trimming is preferable to heavy, 




AUTUMN'S 
FULFILLMENT 



THE APPI,E 83 

irregular trimming. The apple produces its fruit on 
twigs or fruit spurs which are at least three or four 
years old. 

PrincipaIv Insect Pests. — Aphis (lice) on 
leaves. Remedy : Spray with tobacco solution when 
lice first hatch out and before they are hidden by curl 
of leaves. 

Apple maggot : A tiny worm which tunnels the 
fruit in all directions. Remedy : Promptly pick up 
and destroy or feed to the stock all windfalls. 

Apple-twig borer : A tiny blackish beetle which 
bores into terminal twigs near buds. Infested twigs 
often wilt and die. No good remedy is known, except 
to cut off all such twigs, not later than July, and burn 
them. 

Borers: Two kinds — "round-headed" and "flat- 
headed." See Chapter IX for borer remedies. 

Bud worm : A little caterpillar that attacks buds, 
blossoms and starting leaves. Remedy : Arsenical 
spray when buds begin to open. 

Buffalo tree-hopper : A small greenish insect about 
one-third of an inch long, that punctures the twigs, 
causing a peculiar scarred appearance. Remedy : 
Cut off the injured twigs and burn. 

Codling moth : 'Tis estimated that one-half of 
America's apple crop is annually ruined by the cod- 
ling moth. This is the pest that causes ' ' wormy apple- 
cores. " The moth seldom flies except at night, and 
therefore few fruit-growers have ever seen one. 
About the time that the blossoms are falling, this 
moth appears and glues its eggs on or near the min- 
iature apples. In about a week these eggs hatch. 



84 BIGGI.E; ORCHARD BOOK 

and, as a rule, each little apple worm soon finds its 
way directly into the upright, open, cup-like blos- 
som end on top of an apple. Here it hides and feeds 
for several days — then it bores its way into the apple 
to the core. The time to fight this pest is when it is 
feeding on the outside of the apple ^ in the little ctip- 
like cradle. A drop or two of poison then applied 
will quickly kill the worm and thus save the apple ; 
whereas if the fight is delayed until it has really 
enter ^d the apple, no outward application of poison 
can affect it. ' The falling of the blossoms 
is the signal to begin spraying; the clos- 
ing of the calyx lobes a week or two later 
is the signal to stop 
spraying. ' ' The Bor- 
deaux-arsenical spray 

,, - , . STOP SPRAYING" 

"begin is excellent tor this 
SPRAYING purpose. Two applications — a week apart 
— are advised. Banding the trees, and promptly 
destroying all windfall apples, are measures which 
are also of help. 

Canker worm : This " looping" or " measuring" 
caterpillar feeds upon the foliage and is often very 
destructive. Remedies : Sticky bands of tar, printers' 
ink, or fly-paper, placed around each tree trunk in 
early spring to prevent the ascent of the egg-laying 
moths ; an arsenical spray all over trees where 
worms have hatched. 

Curculio : A hump-backed beetle about an eighth 
of an inch long (related to the plum curculio, but with 
a longer snout) which sometimes stings young apples. 
Remedy : Arsenical spray. 





THE APPIvE 85 

Leaf roller, leaf cruinpler, and leaf skeletonizer : 
These three pests can be killed with an arsenical 
spray. 

Scale lice : San Jose, oyster-shell, and scurfy. See 
Chapter VIII for remedies. 

Tent-caterpillar: The well-known "nest" worm 
found on trees in early summer. Remedies : Tie a 
piece of cloth around one end of a long stick, saturate 
the cloth with kerosene, ignite, and with this torch 
quickly burn each silky tent of worms ; do this in 
early morning or just before nightfall, so as to be 
sure that all the worms are "at home " ; an arsenical 
spray is also helpful. 

Woolly aphis : There are two forms of this insect ; 
one attacks the roots, as told in Chapter III; the 
other occurs in masses of white, woolly substance on 
the limbs and trunks. Beneath each woolly mass will 
be found a number of yellowish lice. Remedies : 
Kerosene emulsion, tobacco solution, or scalding hot 
water. 

Principai, Fungous Pests. — Powdery mildew: 
Whitish blotches sometimes found, about midsummer, 
on terminal shoots and leaves, wdiich soon spread 
over most of the new growth. Remedy : Bordeaux 
mixture. 

Rot : This trouble is also called ' ' bitter rot, " " ripe 
rot, " " apple rot, ' ' etc. ; it attacks the fruit before the 
ripening period, caiising decayed brown spots ; usually 
the infected speciiiiens drop to the ground, although 
some of them * shrivel up and stay on the tree all 
winter, thus carrying the fungous spores to the next 
year's crop. Remedies : Destroy fallen fruit ; remove 



86 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

and burn all mummied apples which stay on the trees 
in the fall ; spray with the Bordeaux mixture early in 
the season. (Note : There is another form of rot 
which is called ' ' pink rot. ' ' Bordeaux is the remedy. ) 

Rust : A fungns which sometimes blisters the 
leaves with orange-colored spots, and which usually 
originates on cedar trees. Remedies : Spray or cut 
down any cedars which may be near the apple orchard ; 
spray the orchard with Bordeaux. 

Scab: This is sometimes called "black spot"; it 
produces the well-known scabby places upon apples ; 
it also affects the new shoots and leaves, causing- black 
blotches thereon, — and often the early spring leaves 
are thus blighted ; young apples shrivel and drop 
from the tree ; mature apples are seriously disfigured. 
Remedy : Bordeaux, several sprayings at intervals of 
about two weeks, beginning before buds open. 

Twig blight : This apple disease is similar in 
nature to the well-known "fire blight" of the pear; 
affected terminal twigs (including leaves, flowers or 
fruit thereon) turn black or brown, and die. The 
only known remedy is to cut out the diseased parts, 
and burn. (See pear blight, Chapter XIII.) This 
trouble comes and goes, and is worse some years than 
others. 

Misckl,i<ane;ous Troubi^es. — Chief among these 
are sun-scald (consult Chapter IX), crown galls 
(Chapter III), canker and collar rot. No very good 
remedies are known for the two last- mentioned 
troubles ; they seem to be closely related to ' ' twig ' ' 
and "fire" blight ; for instance, a blighted twig will 
often cause a canker to form near its base. 



THE APPi,K 87 

Canker is a fungous or bacterial trouble which 
causes cracked or sunken irregular dead places to 
appear on the bark or limbs, in crotches, and some- 
times in such form as practically to girdle small 
branches. Cut out and burn such small branches. 
If large cankers appear on trunk or main limbs, cut 
out the diseased places with a sharp knife, swab out 
and disinfect the wounds with corrosive sublimate 
solution (one tablet dissolved in one pint of water), 
and, when dry, cover the places with thick lead-and-oil 
paint. Do this early in the season. Renew the paint 
each year until wounds heal. Disinfect knife after 
such use. Remember that corrosive sublimate is 
poison. 

Collar rot most often attacks King and Spitzen- 
burg trees, and diseased trees should be treated as 
advised for canker. (Note : Top-grafting these va- 
rieties on, sa}', Spy stocks, would secure new trees 
less liable to this disease of the bark at the base of 
the trunk.) 

A Wise "Combination" Spraying System. — 
The up-to-date grower does not often consider each 
insect and fungous pest separately. No. He plans a 
spraying campaign which pretty nearly hits them all 
(except borers, aphis, etc.). Here is a good system : 
First spraying, Bordeaux, in spring before leaf buds 
open ; second spraying (if bud worms, canker worms 
or curculios are abundant), Bordeaux-arsenical mix- 
ture, just before blossoms open ; third spraying, Bor- 
deaux-arsenical mixture immediately after blossoms 
fall ; fourth, repeat same mixture at end of one 
week ; Bordeaux alone, two weeks later, may make 



88 BIGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 

the fifth application. (Note : Often, only the first, 
third and fourth sprayings are necessary. If linie- 
sulphur-salt spray is used in February or March for 
San Jose, the Jirst application of Bordeaux may be 
omitted. Remember, lime-sulphur-salt is a fungicide 
as well as a scale killer.) 

Appi^k By-products. — The poorer grades of apples 
can often be advantageously utilized in the making of 
jelly, marmalade, dried apples, and vinegar. With a 
hand press about two gallons of cider can be extracted 
from a bushel of average apples ; with a power press 
it is possible to extract almost twice as much. Barrels 
for cider vinegar should be thoroughly cleaned and 
scalded out. Fermentation is usually completed in 
from three to six weeks, at which time add a small 
quantity of mother of vinegar to hasten the vinegar 
process. Admit air freely to the barrels, keep them 
in the warmest part of the cellar, and in less than a 
year you should have a supply of excellent vinegar. 

REINVIGORATING an O1.D, NEGI.ECTED OR- 
CHARD. — Circumstances may alter cases, but in a 
general way I suggest the following plan : First, prune 
as directed for neglected trees (Chapter V) ; then com- 
mence the ' ' combination spraying system ' ' recom- 
mended in this chapter ; look out for borers, sun- 
scald, scale lice, etc. ; scrape loose bark off from 
trunk and main limbs, and apply whitewash thereto (if 
lime-sulphur-salt spray is used, whitewash will not be 
needed) ; plug up or paint all old wounds, first sawing 
off all old stubs (grafting wax makes a good plug for 
cavities) ; plow the orchard in spring — as shallow as 
possible ; never mind if you do cut a few roots ; apply 



PLATE X 



MAIDENS BLUSH 




OLDENBURG 



THE APPI,E 89 

fertilizers, and cultivate, regularly, as told in Chapter 
VI ; sow cover crops as directed in Chapter IX ; con- 
tinue to prune, spray, plow, fertilize, cultivate, etc., 
each following year. 

Varieties. — Those marked with a star are espe- 
cially suited for commercial orchards and market. 

ly. B. Judson, Idaho, says that Jonathan, Rome Beauty and 
Ben Davis are the greatest favorites, the state over, for com- 
mercial plantations. 

J. C. AVhitten, Missouri, pins his faith to these commercial 
kinds: Ben Davis, Gano, Jonathan, York Imperial, Missouri 
Pippin, Winesap, Grimes' Golden, Clayton, Ingram and Rome 
Beauty. 

W. T. Vincenheller, Arkansas, writes : For a list of market 
apples that I would plant in an orchard of 1,000 trees, I beg' to 
state that I would use Black Ben Davis, Jonathan, Grimes' 
Golden and King David, in equal quantities. 

Farm Journal's " best sixteen " list of market varieties from 
which to select for a commercial orchard located in Pennsyl- 
vania, etc., comprises: Oldenburg, Maiden's Blush, Fameuse, 
King, Ranibo, Northern Spy, York Imperial, Rome Beauty, Stay- 
man Winesap, Baldwin, R. I. Greening, Ben Davis, Grimes' 
Golden, Sutton Beauty, Smokehouse, Smith's Cider. 

Dr. Chamberlain's favorite list of market varieties for Ohio, 
is as follows: "For summer. Red Astrachan, Oldenburg; for 
early fall. Maiden's Blush ; for late fall and winter, Baldwin, 
R. I. Greening, Seek-no-further, Peck's Pleasant (short-lived 
tree but fine dessert apple). Northern Spy, Roxbury Russet, 
Jonathan, Belmont, Canada Red. I would have at least ninety 
per cent. Baldwins." 

For the cold districts of INIaine, northern Vermont, northern 
Ne\v Hampshire, northeastern New York, Quebec, New Bruns- 
wick, etc., and the northern peninsula of INIichigan, the following 
varieties are suggested by the government pomologist: 

Tetofskj- ; *01denburg ; *Gravenstein ; Wealthy ; St. I,aw- 
rence ; Twenty Ounce; *F^ameuse; Pewaukee ; Bailey Sweet; 
Mcintosh ; Wolf River ; Tolman Sweet ; *Northeru Spy. 

For Colorado, etc., the followi:ig varieties are suggested : 
Tetofsky ; *Red Astrachan; *01denburg-; *Maiden's Blush; 
Bailey vSweet ; *Jonathan ; Pewaukee ; Swaar ; Fallawater ; 
Hubbardston ; White Pearmain ; Yellow^ Bellflower; Golden 
Russet; Peck's Pleasant; *Winesap ; Yellow Transparent ; Early 
Hardest ; Red June ; Gravenstein ; Wealthy ; Wolf River ; 
*Grimes' Golden ; Northern Spy ; Tolman Sweet ; *Missouri ; 
*Tompkins King ; Red Canada ; Rhode Island Greening ; *Rome 
Beauty; Wagener; White Pippin ; Ralls Jannet. 



90 BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 

For Delaware, southern New Jersey, ]VIaryland, Virg-inia, 
West Virginia, southern Ohio, southern Indiana, Kentucky, 
Tennessee, and North Carolina, the following varieties are 
suggested : 

Yellow Transparent ; Trenton Barly ; *Oldenburg ; Primate ; 
Red June ; Golden Sweet ; Early Strawberry ; Fall Pippin ; 
Jefferis ; Rambo ; ''Gravenstein ; Wealthy ; ^Jonathan ; ^Northern 
Spy ; Esopus ; Blue Pearmain ; *Ben Davis ; Rail's Jannet ; Early 
Har\-est ; Porter ; St. L,awrence ; Shiawassee ; Melon ; *Grimes' 
Golden ; Newtown Spitzenburg ; Fallawater ; *White Pippin ; 
Arkansas (Mammoth Blacktwig); *Stark ; *York Imperial; 
*Stayman Winesap ; *Yellow Newtown. 

For northern Illinois, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, and 
Nebraska, the following varieties are suggested : 

Tetofsky ; Red Astrachan ; *01denburg ; Red Stripe ; Golden 
Sweet ; *Benoni ; Charlamoff ; Borovinka ; Porter ; *Maiden's 
Blush ; Alexander ; Dyer ; Rambo ; Lowell ; Shiawassee ; Yel- 
low Transparent ; Early Har\-est ; Primate ; Jefferis ; Graven- 
stein ; Fall Pippin ; St. I^awrence ; Wolf River ; ^Wealthy ; 
Fameuse ; Mcintosh ; Ladies' Sweet ; *Grimes' Golden ; West- 
field ; Newtown Spitzenburg ; Esopus ; Domine ; Roman Stem ; 
*White Pippin ; Rome Beauty ; *Stark ; Rail's Jannet ; *Willow ; 
*Jonathan ; *Hubbardston ; Wagener ; Red Canada ; Tolman ; 
English Russet ; N. W. Greening ; *Winesap ; *York Imperial. 

For New Y^ork, Massachusetts, Connecticut, southern Ver- 
mont, southern New Hampshire, northern New Jersey, Penn- 
sylvania, northern Indiana, northern Ohio, and the lower 
peninsula of Michigan, the following varieties are suggested: 

Early Harvest; *Oldenburg; Golden Sweet; Red Stripe; 
Sweet Bough; Early vStrawberry ; *Maiden's Blush; Red Astra- 
chan ; Benoni ; *Rambo ; Gravenstein ; *Fameuse ; St. Lawrence ; 
Jefferis; Bailey Sweet; Wagener; *Northe''n Spy; Esopus; 
*Ronie Beauty ; ^Baldwin : *Ben Davis ; *Rhode Island Green- 
ing ; Winesap; *York Imperial; Fall Pippin; Shiawassee; Jer- 
sey Sweet; Wealthy; *Grimes' Golden; vSmokehovise ; *Sutton 
Beavity ; *vSmith's Cider; Westfield ; Newtown Spitzenburg; Red 
Canada ; *Tompkins King ; Hubbardston ; Roxbury ; *Stark. 



.-vT^ 




JOLLY GOOD FELLOWS 



PLATE XI 



MONTMORENCY 




BLACK TARTARIAN 

■ (in middle) 



NAPOLEON 



Chapter XI. 
THE CHERRY. 



plant enough cherries fur both folks and birds. — Farmer Vincent. 

This delicious fruit came originally from Europe, 
and comprises two distinct species — sour cherries and 
sweet cherries. 

Propagation. — Budding is the usual method. 
Common seedlings may be used for stocks, although 
nurserymen commonly use imported stocks such 
as the IMahaleb or the ]Mazzard. For very cold 
climates the IVIahaleb stock proves more hardy. 

Sei^ECTing Nursery Trees. — Cherries one or 
two years old from the bud, are about right. Choose 
medium-size trees. If you can get unbranched sweet 
cherries, they are somewhat easier to make live. 

Soii,S. — Cherry trees do best in a light soil, well 
drained, but not too dry ; sandy, loamy or gravelly. 

SpECIAI, CuivTiVATiON Rui.ES. — Owing to the fact 
that the cherry matures its fruit so early in the 
season, cultivation should begin earlier and cease 
sooner than in the case of other tree fruits. 

Bark-burst, sun -scald, gum : Cherries (especially 
sweet varieties) , often grow so rapidly as to burst the 
bark at some point or points on the trunk. There- 
fore, excessive pruning, cultivation or nitrogenous 
fertilizers should be discouraged. In fact, many 
growers say that cultivation should cease two or 
three years after planting, and the ground be seeded 

(91) 



92 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

down permanently. This, of course, depends some- 
what on climate, variet}-, and soil. In regard to 
sun -scald injury- and preventive measures, consult 
Chapter IX ; for gum, see Chapter XII. 

Varieties Which are Often Self-Sterile. — 
S. W. Fletcher places three varieties in this list : 
Napoleon, Belle de Choisy, and Reine Hortense, 

Pruxixg. — The less cherry trees are pruned the 
better. Of course, it is necessary to cut back a tree at 
time of planting, and to guide it in the right path for 
the first two or three years. The fruit of the cherrj^ 
is produced onU' on wood which is two or tliree 
years old. 

Prixcipal Insect Pests. — Aphis (lice): Attack 
the leaves on ends of tender 3-oung shoots. Remed}' : 
Tobacco solution, applied earh', before leaves curl. 

Borers : The flat-headed cherr\-tree borer is very 
much like the flat-headed apple-tree borer. 

Curculio : The plum curculio often stings cher- 
ries, too, but the injured cherries are not so apt to 
drop off. 

Chern*- fruit-fly or maggot : A fl}' which punctures 
the skin of the fruit, and deposits an egg which soon 
hatches into a small worm or maggot The curculio 
makes a crescent-shaped puncture ; this fl}' does not. 
Prof. Slingerland saj-s : ' ' Place a temporary- wire net- 
ting around the trees and turn hens therein soon after 
the fruit is picked." 

Leaf rollers : These pests feed on the leaves 
and roll them together for protection. Remedies : 
Arsenical spraj-s ; cut off and burn badly infested 
twigs. 



THE CHERRY 93 

May beetle : This well-known *' Tune bug " some- 
times attacks the foliage at night. Arsenical sprays. 

Rose bug : See Chapter XII. 

Slug : The ordinary pear-tree slug often feeds on 
the leaves of cherry- trees. 

San Jose scale louse : Consult Chapter \1U. 

Principal FuxGors Pests. — Black knot : Dark, 
knotty, wart-like bunches upon twigs and branches. 
Easily seen and recognized. Spreads if not promptly 
attended to. Remedy- : Cut out and bum all knots as 
soon as seen : cut well below the diseased parts l^also. 
spray the trees with Bordeaux) . 

Brown rot : It causes decayed brownish places on 
the fruit quickly ruining it and rapidl}- spreading to 
adjacent cherries : infected specimens may drop to 
the ground, or they may shrivel up and stay on the 
tree all winter, thus carrying the disease to next 
year's crop. Remedies : Destroy fallen fruit ; remove 
and bum all mummied cherries found on the trees in 
the fall : spraj- with Bordeaux, several times, early in 
the season : pick the fruit promptly and early. 

Leaf-blight or spot : Often called the ' ' shot-hole 
fungus." Makes round spots on the leaves, which 
soon drop off. Remedy : Two or three early spray- 
ings with Bordeaux. 

Powdery mildew : See Chapter X. 

Complete Spraying System. — Properly and 
easih- to treat most insects (except lice, borers, etc.), 
and all fungous pests, I suggest the following com- 
bined method : Just before buds open, apply Bordeaux- 
arsenical mixture ; give second spraying when fruit 
has set, using same mixture ; two weeks later, 



94 BIGGIvE ORCHARD BOOK 

Bordeaux. (Special note : If the trees receive a linie- 
sulphur-salt treatment for San Jose in early spring, 
the first Bordeaux application may be omitted. ) 

Bird Injury. — I wish that I were able to suggest 
a really satisfactory way to prevent birds from getting 
more than their share of cherries. The only prac- 
ticable remedies seem to be : Either put mosquito 
netting over a few trees, or plant enough trees for 
birds, market and family. One or two mulberry 
trees help to attract birds away from the cherries. 

Varikties. — Those marked with a star are espe- 
cially suited for market. 

H. I,. Price, for Virginia, recommends: Coe's Transparent; 
Early Purple: Windsor; Reine Hortense ; *Montmorency ; Olivet. 

J. ly. Herbst, Sparta, Wisconsin, recommends just one variety 
— Early Richmond — as being profitable to plant in that cold 
climate. 

My friend Wilmer Atkinson's favorite list for Pennsjlvania, 
and similar climates, is as follovk^s : *Black Tartarian ; *Windsor ; 
Gov. Wood ; Downer's I^ate ; Early Richmond ; "Montmorency. 

Edward J. Wickson recommends for California, the follow- 
ing varieties : *Early Purple Guigue ; *Napoleon (often called 
"Royal Ann"); *Iyewelling ; *Black Tartarian; *California 
Advance ; *Bing. 

Benton Gebhart, a successful Michigan grower, says that he 
has had best results with the following: *Early Richmond; 
*Montmorency ; *English Morello ; *Brusseller Braune : sweet 
varieties — *Gov. Wood ; *Black Tartarian ; *Windsor. 

G. H. Powell and L,. H. Bailey, New York State (where there 
are many commercial cherry orchards), recommend these 
varieties : l,ouis Phillipe ; *Montmorency : *English Morello ; 
^Windsor; *Napoleon ; *Black Tartarian; *Black Eagle; 
*Mezel ; *Robert"s Red Heart ; *Downer's L,ate Red ; Gov. Wood ; 
Coe's Transparent ; Belle d'Orleans : Rockport ; Knight's Early 
Black ; Yellow Spanish ; May Duke. 



OLDMIXON FREE 




SALVVAY 

(fruit not thinned) 



MOUNTAIN ROSE 



Chapter XII. 
THE PEACH. 




A farm wJihout sottie Peach tiees is like milk zuithout creayn. — Tim. 

The peach is not a native of America. Probably 
the peach originated in China ; from thence it went 
to Persia and to Europe. 

Propagation. — Bud 
known varieties on to 
seedling peach stocks, 
close to the ground. A 
thrifty tree one year from 
the bud is the right size 
to set. When buying 
trees, choose medium size, 

. . , , . 1 + +V, FOUR HALF-POUND BEAUTIES 

straight ones ; let the 

big, overgrown fellows alone. (Note : Plums are 
sometimes used for stocks, if the peach orchard must 
be planted on rather heavy, damp soil.) 

Varieties Which are Often Sei.f-Sterii<e. — 
Under this heading S. W. Fletcher lists only one kind 
of peach, viz. — the Susquehanna. 

Pruning. — Of all fruit trees the peach seems 
to need the most trimming (the dwarf pear is 
a close second in this respect). Each season the 
trees should be pruned — cutting them back and 
thinning them out, both. Cutting off one-half or 
two-thirds of the new growth each year, is not 
too much. Remember that the peach (unlike the 

(95) 



96 BlGGlvE ORCHARD BOOK 

apple, cherry, plum, and pear) produces its fruit 
on wood of the preceding year, — that is, on one- 
year-old wood. 

Speciai, CuL,TivATiON HiNTS. — The peach, to be 
healthy and profitable, must be cultivated. In this 
it is unlike the pear, cherry, etc., — which sometimes 
do fairly well in sod. Experienced peach growers do 
not, as a rule, plow a bearing peach orchard until 
after it has blossomed. Why not? For the same 
reason that they often choose a north slope — to retard, 
so far as is possible, the blossoming period with its 
liability to early frost injury. Remember that no 
tree will die so quickly from "wet feet" as will the 
peach (unless it is the cherry) . 

Principai, Insect Pests. — Aphis (lice): See 
preceding chapter. 

Borers : The peach-tree borer is the most common 
pest in this line, although the flat-headed borers of 
the apple and cherry sometimes (not often) attack the 
peach. For remedies, see Chapter IX. 

Curculio : The plum curculio often stings peaches. 

Fruit-bark beetle : A small black beetle which bores 
tiny holes into the bark of upper twigs and limbs, and 
then forms inner-bark burrows. This causes some of 
the infested branches to wither and die. Remedies : 
This beetle is most apt to attack unthrifty trees ; 
therefore, good cultivation, fertilization, priming, etc., 
are helpful. Promptly burn all cuttings, so that the 
larvae within may be destroyed. Early sprayings 
with the Bordeaux-arsenical mixture. This insect is 
sometimes called the "pin borer." 

San Jose scale louse : Consult Chapter VIII. 



THE PEACH 



97 



The snowy tree cricket sometimes punctures new 
wood ; cut off and burn such wood. Rose chafers or 
bugs occasionally attack fruit, etc. Knock them into 
pans of kerosene. 

Principai, Fungous Pests. — Brown rot: See 
preceding chapter for description and remedies. 
Besides affecting the fruit (and sometimes the 
blossoms), this fungus often injures or kills the 
twigs, as well. The result is something like "twig 
blight," although the cause is different from the true 
twig blight of the apple, pear, etc. Thinning the 
fruit helps to prevent the spread of the rot. 

Leaf-curl : This is, some seasons, a very serious 
trouble in many peach orchards. Shortly after the 
leaves come out in the spring 
they begin to curl, soon become 
distorted* and misshapen, and 
then fall off. Thus the tree 
becomes partially or wholly 
denuded of foliage, the immature 
fruit is likely to drop off, and the 
vitality of the tree is, of course, 
more or less injured in the at- 
tempt to perfect a second and peach leaf-curl 
later crop of leaves. Some varieties seem more 
subject to this trouble than others ; and the 
disease is apt to be worse in a wet season. 
Remedy : Full-strength Bordeaux (or lime-sulphur- 
salt) in spring before buds siucll ; when blossoms 
have fallen, spray with half-strength Bordeaux; if 
necessary, repeat with half-strength Bordeaux two 
weeks later. 




98 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

Scab : Somewhat similar to apple scab. Bordeaux. 

MiscEr.i.ANEors Troubles. — Crown Gall: See 
Chapter III. 

Gum : Caused by borers, bruises, and fungus. 
Common on peach, cherry and plum trees. 

" Little Peach " : Very little is known of this dis- 
ease, and it is as j-et common in onh* a few localities. 
The name is quite expressive of the sj-mptoms ; the 
fruit remains small and tough, the tree seems un- 
healthy, the leaves seem smaller than is natural, and 
finally the tree dies. The disease spreads from one 
tree to another. The onl}' known remedy is to pull 
out the infected trees at once, and burn them. 

Peach ' ' rosette " is a disease of the peach in the 
southern states. Its effects on the tree are similar to 
those of 3'ellows, and, like that disease, it is to be 
controlled only by the destruction of affected trees. 

Sun-scald : Consult Chapter IX. Some folks call 
this trouble " frost - crack " when it occurs during 
freezing weather. 

"Sun-scorch" of foliage sometimes occurs during 
a drouth, or when hot, drj' winds blow. Regular 
cultivation is a partial preventive of sun-scorch. 

" Yellows " : This is probabl}- the most serious foe 
that the peach grower has to contend with, — unless 
it be the San Jose scale louse. It is a communicable 
disease ; it is alwaj's fatal within a few j-ears ; and it 
attacks both old and young trees, and seemingly has 
an especial fondness for health}', vigorous trees. No 
cure is known, and the exact nature of the disease 
has not 3'et been determined. In bearing trees the 
premature ripening of the fruit is one of the first 



THE PEACH 



99 




indications of the presence of "yellows," says B. O. 
Longyear. Such fruits are also highly colored, pos- 
sessing red spots and streaks 
which often extend from the 
surface to the pit. the flesh 
being marbled and streaked 
with red. The buds formed dur- 
ing the summer, for growth the 
next season, are also sometimes 
prematurely unfolded. But the 
most characteristic feature is 
the growth of bunches of 
slender, twiggy branches dur- 
ing the summer and autumn, from the crotches and 
upon the older branches. These wiry shoots bear 
narrow sickly leaves of a yellow color, and, being 
produced in clusters, give a characteristic appear- 
ance to infected trees. ' ' Yellows ' ' laws, requiring 
the prompt destruction and burning of infected trees, 
are strictly enforced in most peach localities, and in 
this way the disease has, of late years, been success- 
fully held in check. 

Complete Sprayixg System. — A combination 
system for fungi and most insects would be about as 
follows : First spray, full-strength Bordeaux-arsenical 
mixture just before buds swell ; second spray, after 
blossoms fall and fruit has set, half-strength Bor- 
deaux and arsenate of lead ; third spray, half-strength 
Bordeaux-arsenate when fruit is half grown ; if rot 
threatens fruit, repeat half-strength Bordeaux spray, 
one or more times, at inter\-als of about ten days or 
two weeks. (Special note : If the trees receive a 



L^ 



100 BIGGI.E ORCHA.RD BOOK 

lime-sulphtar-salt treatment for San Jose in early 
spring, the first Bordeaux application will not be 
needed. But if fruit-bark beetles or curculios are 
abundant, it may pay to put some arsenate of lead 
in the lime-sulphur-salt spray.) 

Varieties. — Those marked with a star are espe- 
cially suited for market. 

K. B. Wilkerson, a prominent Missonri grower, gives this 
list: Amsden ; Heath Cling; Crawford's Early; *Crawford's 
L,ate ; Stump ; *Cro&by ; *Champion ; *Elberta ; ^Wonderful ; 
Triumph. 

Wilmer Atkinson's favorite list is : ^Mountain Rose ; Cham- 
pion ; *Moorfe's Favorite ; *Reeve's Favorite ; *Stump the World ; 
*Elberta ; ^Crawford's Eate ; Ward's Eate ; Chair's Choice ; Globe ; 
*Smock Free. - 

George T. Powell, for a commercial orchard in New York, 
would plant: Champion; Carman; Belle of Georgia ; Oldmixon 
Free ; Stump ; Fox Seedling'. The list mig-ht need modifying' 
somewhat, according to the location in the state. 

For very cold climates. Hill's Chili, Champion and Crosby 
are perhaps the most hardy variety. Bi:t tl:e only sure yvay of 
growing a family supply of peaches in such localities, is to " lay 
down " the trees each fall, and cover them over with earth, leaves, 
straw, or other protection. vSuch trees should be trained fiat- 
shaped. Cut the roots on one side; then pull the tree to the 
ground and stake it there. In the spring, right it; put the earth 
back in place ; fertilize, cultivate, etc. 

J. N. vStearns, a prominent western Michigan grower, writes : 
— If I were to plant another commercial peach orchard of, say, 
1,000 trees, I should set 250 Kalamazoo, 250 Golden Drop, 250 
Smock and 250 vSalway. These sorts have brought me more 
money, for the last twenty-five years, than any others. Elberta 
is too unreliable. Golden Drop should be severely pruned and 
thinned. (Please note that this successful peach grower includes 
no white-flesh varieties in his list. Many markets and buyers 
prefer yellow-flesh peaches. — J. B.) 

J. H. Hale, the famous peach grower w^ho has enormous 
orchards in Connecticut and Georgia, writes that his favorite 
list for a succession from early to late in Connecticut, is as fol- 
lows : *Greensboro ; *Waddell ; *Carman ; *Hiley ; *Champion ; 
*Belle of Georgia; *Elberta ; *Chair's Choice; *Steven's. Cut 
out Chair's Choice and Steven's, and the list is a " cream one" 
for Georgia, adds Mr. Hale in his letter. (The peach crop must 
be gathered promptly when ripe, or loss results ; therefore, in 
large orchards, planting varieties which ripen in succession 
through a long season is highly desirable and essential. — J. B.) 



PLATE XIII 

SHELDON 




BARTLETT 
(in middle) 



SECKEL 



Chapte:r XIII. 



THE PEAR. 



There'' s money in pears fo7- the t)ian zvho kito^vs how to get it out. 

Ever since this country was first settled, pears 
from European stock have been grown here. They 
thrive especially well in the eastern, central and far 
western states, and less well in the southern and 
prairie states. Wherever the climate is very cold or 




A FORTY-ACRE PEAR ORCHARD 



very hot, there commercial pear culture becomes 
uncertain or unsatisfactory. 

Propagation. — Standard pears are budded or 
grafted on seedling pear stocks, at a point near the 
crown. Nurserymen usually import seedling pear 
stocks from France, but it is not difficult to grow 

(101) 



102 BIGGIvK ORCHARD BOOK 

seedlings for one's own use. When buying nursery 
trees for setting, choose medium - size, straight, low- 
headed, two-year-olds. 

SoiLrS. — The ideal pear soil is a rather heavy clay- 
loam, with a well-drained subsoil. Heavy clay does 
very well if the underdramage is sufficient. Light 
or sandy soils are not so good for this fruit. 

Varieties Which are Often Sei^e-SteriIvE.— 
S. W. Fletcher, of the Cornell, N. Y., Experiment 
Station, gives this list : " Duchess ; Bartlett ; Clapp ; 
Idaho; Kieffer ; Nelis." (]\Ioral : Don't set solid, 
large blocks of any one of these varieties, — nor of 
any other kind.) 

Pruning. — Cut back and thin out, moderately, 
each season. Always cut back to a bud or a branch, 
so as not to leave a stub. Pruning tools which are 
used on blighted trees, should be disinfected before 
being used again. The pear produces its fruit on 
fruit spurs or wood several years old. 

Speciai, Cui^turai, Directions. — Too much 
cultivation is often dangerous to pear trees (see fare- 
blight) . After a new orchard has made a good growth 
for several years, it is often advisable to seed down 
the land (permanently or temporarily), so as to 
stop excessive wood growth. Likewise, it is usually 
prudent to stop cultivation earlier in the season than 
is customary with other trees (this plan — with an 
early-sown cover-crop — will often do away with the 
necessity of seeding down the orchard). The same 
caution extends to fertilizers. Too much nitrogen 
means too much wood growth ; therefore use more 
potash and phosphoric acid, and less stable manure. 



THE PEAR 103 

The safest source of nitrogen supply is from occasional 
nitrogenous cover crops. 

SuN-scAi^D. — See Chapter IX. 

Principai, Insect Pests. — Borers: The true 
pear-tree borer is something like the peach-tree borer, 
only smaller and seldom so troublesomely numerous. 
The round-headed and flat-headed apple-tree borers 
also attack pear trees sometimes. See Chapter IX. 

Codling moth: Often attacks pears as well as apples. 
Consult Chapter X for description and remedies. 

Midge : A small, grayish, long-legged fly which 
early in spring deposits its eggs inside the pear 
blossoms. The eggs rapidly hatch into tiny worms 
which enter the baby fruits and feed upon them, 
causing them to stop growing or to become misshapen. 
During the summer these worms leave the fruit, fall 
to the ground, enter therein, and make cocoons. 
Remedies : Sprays seem of little account in fighting- 
this pest. The best remedy I have seen suggested, is 
to apply about 1,000 pounds of kainit, per acre, to the 
infested orchard ground in June. This potash salt 
(it's a good fertilizer) is dissolved by rains, soaks into 
the ground, and kills the larvae. 

Oyster-shell bark louse : Sometimes attacks pears as 
well as apples. For remedies, consult Chapter VIII. 
Pear-leaf mite or "blister": A minute spider-like 
insect which infests leaves early in the season, causing 
blisters or galls thereon, — reddish in color at first, 
gradually turning to a dark brown later in the siimmer. 
Remedies : Spraying the leaves does little good. But, 
as the insects hibernate on the tree bark, I think that 
the lime-sulphur-salt spra}^, applied before l)uds swell, 
would kill mites, scale lice, and fungus. 



104 BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 

Pear-tree psylla : A tiny, jumping louse, yellowish 
in color, that attacks tender leaves and shoots, causing 
them to droop and exude sap or honey dew, — which 
condition soon attracts flies and ants to the feast. 
Entire orchards have sometimes been ruined, in a few 
years, by this pest. Remedies : Lime-sulphur-salt, or 
kerosene emulsion, sprayed on the trees early in 
spring before buds swell ; followed by tobacco solution 
sprays in May or June. 

San Jose scale louse : See Chapter VIII. 

Scurfy scale louse : See Chapter VIII. 

Slug : The pear-tree slug is about half an inch, or 
less, in length when full grown ; darkish color ; slimy 
appearance. It eats the upper portion of leaves. This 
pest comes from eggs laid by a black fly. There are 
two broods of the slugs, — one in late June or early 
July, and another in August. Remedies : Almost any 
of the standard sprays will kill slugs ; in fact, they are 
very easily destroyed. A simple remedy would be an 
ounce of fresh white hellebore dissolved in three gal- 
lons of water and sprayed on leaves when slugs are 
there. Or arsenate of lead would do. Or, fine dry 
road-dust or air-slaked lime, thrown or blown into the 
trees, will kill every slug it covers. 

Principai, Fungous Pests. — Leaf-blight: This 
very common and serious disease produces, on the 
leaves in the spring, reddish spots ; these gradually 
enlarge and turn brown, until all or a large part of 
each affected leaf appears dark and dead. Badly 
injured leaves soon drop off, and in this way the 
trees may lose most or all of their foliage — which 
gives them a bad setlxack. The fungus also attacks 



the: pear 105 

stems and fruit. It produces ugly, hard, scabby- 
looking- places on the fruit, frequently causing it to 
ctack open. Remedy : Spray the trees with Bonleaux 
before blossoms open ; repeat, after blossoms have 
fallen ; repeat, once or twice more, at intervals of 
two or three weeks. This trouble should not be 
confused with the disease called pear or "fire" 
blight, which attacks the limbs of trees. 

Scab : Scabb}^ fruit is usually caused by leaf blight. 
A very similar disease — apple scab — may attack pears. 

"Fire" or Pear Bi^ight. — This is a bacterial 
disease which injures or kills thousands of trees every 
year. It is to the pear orchard what the "yellow^s" 
is to the peach orchard — a deadly, relentless, not 
thoroughly mastered, enemy. Whatever it touches it 
blackens and "burns," — leaves, blossoms, fruit and 
branches wither at its approach. It sometimes walks 
down a pear tree limb at the rate of from one to 
twelve inches a day ; usually only two or three inches, 
or less. One can easily recognize the disease. Watch 
the trees carefully during the growing season, and 
amputate attacked limits at once. Have a bottle of 
alcohol, and dip the tool in it after each amputation ; 
it kills the blight germs that will cling to any imple- 
ment and which may infect the next tree that is treated. 
Always cut well beloiu the affected part of branch. 
Burn all cuttings, promptly. This disease is more 
apt to attack fast-growing than slow-growing trees, 
therefore an important part of the treatment is to avoid 
a too stimulating method of fertilization andcultivation. 

Combination vSpraving System. — The best sys- 
tem yet devised for most insect and fungous troubles, 



106 BIGGIvE ORCHARD BOOK 

is as follows : Spray trees just before blossoms open, 
with Bordeaux ; after blossoms have fallen, Bordeaux- 
arsenical mixture ; two or three weeks later, Bor- 
deaux ; if season is wet and leaf -blight prevalent, 
repeat Bordeaux two weeks later. (Special note : If 
scale lice are present, or pear-leaf mite, or psylla, 
begin spraying operations by applying lime-sulphur- 
salt very early in the spring before buds swell. And, 
for psylla, don't forget the later, special, tobacco 
sprayings previously advised in this chapter.) 

Varieties. — Those marked with a star are espe- 
cially suited for market, 

M. J. Graham, an Iowa fruit-grower, has had best success 
with *L,ongworth ; *Kieffer ; *Warner. 

For Virginia, H. L,. Price recommends : Summer Doyenne ; 
Rose ; Clapp ; *Bartlett ; L,awreuce ; Sheldon. 

For Illinois, just three commercial varieties are recommended 
by R. O. Graham : *Kieffer ; *Garber ; *Duchess. 

For the southern states — Mississippi, Alabama, etc.— W H. 
Ragan recommends : *Kieffer ; L,e Conte ; Garber ; Archangel. 

For California, B. J.Wickson recommends : *Clapp ; *Comice ; 
*Anjou ; *Clairgeau ; *Bartlett ; *Faster ; *P. Barry ; *Winter 
Nelis ; etc. 

Wilmer Atkinson suggests for Pennsylvania, etc.: Manning's 
Elizabeth ; *Howell ; *Bartlett ; *Seckel ; Dana's Hovey ; l,aw- 
rence ; Anjou ; Duchess ; *Kieffer ; Winter Nelis. 

B. G. Green, a successful Michigan grower, writes : If I were 
to plant another commercial pear orchard of 1,000 trees I should 
set: 650 Bartlett, 150 Clapp's Favorite, 100 Anjou, 50 Flemish 
Beauty and 50 Bosc. 

For Ohio, New York, Indiana, Connecticut, etc. — Pomologist 
Ragan suggests : *Bosc ; *Kieffer ; *Anjou ; *Bartlett ; *Howell ; 
I^awrence ; vSheldon ; *Boussock ; Clapp ; Brandywine ; *vSeckel ; 
*Duchess ; *IyOuise Bonne ; Winter Nelis ; and several other 
kinds. 

For cold districts — Maine, northern Vermont, Wisconsin, 
Minnesota, etc. — Pomologist W. H. Ragan suggests the follow- 
ing : Vermont Beauty ; Flemish Beauty ; Wilder Early ; *Besse- 
mianka. (At the best, pear culture is precarious in very cold 
climates. Banking earth high up around tree trunks and holding 
it in place with boards, during the winter, is a great help.— J. B.) 



BRADSHAW 



PLATE XIV 



BURBANK 




RED JUNE 



DAMSON 



YELLOW EGG 



Chapter XIV, 
THE PLUM. 



If it wasn't for the curcidio. Jack Horner would find it easier to 
put his ttutnib into a pie and pjdl out a plum. — Tim. 

Generally speaking, plum culture comprises several 
types or classes, viz. — European [Prujius domestica) ; 
Japanese {Prufius triflora) \ American {Primus Amer- 
icana ; Prunus hortulana) , comprising Wild Goose 
and similar native varieties ; and Prunus Chicasa 
comprising the Chickasaw native types of our south- 
ern states. One or two other types are not of sufficient 
importance to mention here. 

Propagation. — Budding is the common method, 
on seedling plum stocks. These may be grown at 
home. Nurserymen, however, generally use ]\Iyro- 
balan, Marianna, or other imported plum stocks, 
because it is not easy to secure sufficient seed for 
extensive planting. Plums are sometimes budded on 
seedling peach stocks, — particulary in the south and 
for dry, sandy locations. Americana varieties usually 
do best if budded on their own seedlings. 

Sei<ECTing Nursery Trees. — Two-year-old trees 
are about right. Fast -growing varieties are some- 
times ready for planting when only one year old 
from the bud. 

SoiiwS. — Plums do well almost anywhere, — if the 
ground is not too wet. This fruit, however, will 
stand much more moisture than the peach or cherry. 

(107) 



108 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

A clay-loam, rather moist but without stagnant sub- 
soil water, would be ideal for the European and 
native varieties. The Japanese kinds do very well 
on a lighter soil. 

Varieties Which are Often vSei.e-Sterii.E. — 
S. W. Fletcher says under this heading in Bulletin 
181, Cornell Experiment Station: ' Coe's Golden 
Drop, French Prune, Italian Prune, Kelsey, Miner, 
Marianna, Ogon, Peach Plum, Satsvima, Wild Goose, 
and (according to Waugh and Kerr) all other varieties 
of native plums except Robinson." 

Pruning. — The plum requires more pruning than 
the cherry, and not so much as the peach. Upright- 
growing varieties require one style of pruning ; 
sprawling kinds (like Burbank) require another. 
The trees may have a central leader, or be trained in 
the open-centre, vase-like style. Some varieties 
require more cutting-back than others. Study your 
trees. Plum fruits, like cherries, are mostly borne 
on fruit spurs which are at least two years old. 

PrincipaIv Insect Pests. — Aphis (lice): See 
Chapter X. 

Borers : The plum-tree borer sometimes infests the 
base of main limbs and the upper part of trunk. The 
peach-tree borer, etc., occasionally attacks plum trees. 
Remedies : See Chapter IX. 

Curculio : A tiny, hump-backed, fly- 
ing insect (see illustration) which stings 
r^TTT,r>TTTTrA the fruit shortly after blossoming time. 
(enlarged) It makes crescent-shape punctures and 
deposits eggs therein. These soon hatch into little 
grubs. IVIost of the stung fruit falls off the tree 




THE PIvUM 109 

before ripe. The ciirculio is sometimes called the 
" Little Turk, " on account of the crescent-shape trade 
mark it leaves on fruit ; in size, this insect is about 
three-sixteenths of an inch in length. Remedies : 
Bordeaux-arsenical mixture sprayed on trees just 
before blossoms open ; repeat the same after blossoms 
fall ; repeat, once or twice more, at intervals of a week. 
Destroy all fallen fruit. Also, a flock of chickens in 
a plum orchard is a great help. But the surest one 
remedy is the jarring process. Rig up a cloth-covered 
frame (like an inverted umbrella) , mount it on wheels, 
and jar the curculios into it so they can be collected 
and killed (see picture). The jarring is best done 
(during the cool of early morn- 
ing) by tapping the tree briskly 
with a padded, long-handled 
mallet. The insects, sluggish 
with cold or heavy with dew, 
drop into the frame below, 
instead of flying away. This jarring process should 
be repeated every morning or so, as long as the 
curculios are plentiful. 

Plum gouger : A small snout -beetle without a 
hump on its back. ]\Iuch like the curculio in its 
habits and the effect on the fruit. It punctures the 
fruit, but does not make a crescent -shape mark. 
Remedies are the same as advised for curculio. 

Plum scale : Consult Chapter VIII. 

San Jose scale louse : Consult Chapter VIII. 

PrincipaIv Fungous Pests. — Black knot: See 
Chapter XI. These dark, warty - looking knots or 
bunches on branches need prompt attention. 




110 BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 

Brown rot : Consult Chapter XI. 

Leaf -blight or spot: Often called "shot -hole" 
fungus. See Chapter XI. 

Plum pockets : A fungous disease which causes 
the fruit to become distorted, enlarged and unhealthy ; 
finally it turns dark in color, becomes wrinkled, and 
drops off the tree. No pits are found in these diseased 
fruits. Remedies : Early sprayings with Bordeaux ; 
prune the trees and cut off as much as possible of the 
wood which bears diseased fruit. 

Combination Spraying System. — For most 
insects (except borers, lice, etc.), and all fungous 
pests, I suggest that you turn to Chapter XII and 
use the complete system there advocated for peaches. 

Bark -Burst, Sun-Scai,d, Gum. — See Chapters 
IX, XI and XII. 

Varieties. — Those marked with a star are espe- 
cially suited for market. 

R. O. Graham, an Illinois plum grower, has had best success 
with : *Wild Goose ; *Miner ; *Wolf ; *De vSoto. 

E. ly. Mason, Missouri, has had good sviccess with : *Green 
Gage ; *L,ombard ; *Niagara ; *.Shipper's Pride ; *Damson ; etc. 

For Alabama, Mississippi, etc., W. H. Ragan recommends: 
*Chabot ; *Cumberland ; *Golden Beauty ; Red June ; Yellow 
Transparent ; *Abundance ; *Burbank ; *Kelsej' ; etc. 

For a commercial orchard in New^ York, George T. Powell 
recommends : *Reine Claude ; *Giant Prune : *Peter's Yellow 
Gage ; *Quackenboss ; *Fellemberg ; *German Prune. 

For Pennsylvania, Ohio, Michigan, Connecticut, etc., Pomol- 
ogistW. H. Ragan suggests: *Reine Claude (Bavay's Green Gage); 
*Bradshaw ; *Coe's Golden Drop ; *Danison ; Black Diamond ; 
*German Prune ; *Grand Duke ; Gueii ; Imperial Gage ; Yellow 
^gg; *Fellemberg (Italian Prune); *L,ombard; *Quackenboss ; etc. 



PLATE XV 



DUCHESS 




ANJOU 



Chapter XV. 



THE QUINCE AND DWARF PEAR. 



They arenH big trees, but there'' s a lot of them to the acre. 

Quince culture, except in a small way, is not very 
popular. A few commercial orchards are to be found, 
here and there, and the fruit brings fair prices when- 
ever the supply is not overlarge. As the fruit is 
practically uneatable in a raw state, it is in demand 
only for canning, for marmalade, etc., and for flavor- 
ing preserves, etc. There is no more beautiful sight 
than a quince tree in blossom. Every family should 
have at least a few of the trees. 

Propagation. — Any one of several methods may 
be used : Budding, with quince seedlings for stock ; 
grafting, on apple roots; layering; and making cut- 
tings of ripened wood for planting (in nursery rows) 
like currant or grape cuttings. Cuttings should be 
taken in the fall, in about ten-inch lengths, tied in 
bundles, and stored away like scions until spring. Or 
they may be planted in the fall, and protected with 
mulch, I do not recommend layering. 

CuivTURAi, Hints. — Quinces do best on a moist 
(but well underdrained) clay-loam. However, they 
will grow fairly well on almost any soil which is not 
too wet. Thorough tillage is desirable. But remem- 
ber that these trees are shallow rooted ; do not plow 
too deep. Winter cover crops of some kind are 
essential ; they help to keep the roots from frost 

(111) 



112 BIGGI.E: ORCHARD BOOK 

injury. Pruning- should be systematic. Head back 
the new growth in the spring, or thin it out, or both, 
— as may be required to maintain a shapely, well- 
balanced tree. There is no sense in thinking that 
quinces must necessarily be straggling, misshapen 
bushes. Start with a straight stem two feet high, 
have the head open and well branched, — and you can 
make the tree as shapely as you please. The fruit is 
produced on little shoots which grow in spring on 
wood that is at least two years old. Keep all suckers 
cut off from around the trunk. 

Principai, Insect and Fungous Pksts. — The 
codling moth, the quince curculio, the round-headed 
apple-tree borer, the pear-tree slug and the pear-tree 
blister mite, all bother quince trees more or less. 
Remedies have been given in preceding chapters. 
There, too, you will find hints about leaf blight, rust, 
rot, twig blight and fire blight, — all of which are well- 
known enemies of the quince. The quince shovild 
be frequently sprayed with the Bordeaux-arsenical 
mixture to keep trees and fruit healthy. 

Varieties. — Comparatively few kinds are grown. 
Probably the best, for almost any locality, would be : 
Orange ; Rea ; Meech ; Champion. 

DWARF PEAR. 

If properly grown and caretl for, these trees are 
thrifty, productive, long-lived and profitable. But if 
neglected, they are equally short-lived and worthless. 
I know of several dwarf-pear orchards that are now 
twenty to forty years old, which began bearing fruit 
when about four years old, and which are still healthy 



THE QUINCE AND DWARF PEAR 113 

and productive. They have rarely if ever missed a 
crop. 

Propagation. — By budding the pear on quince 
seedlings, dwarf-growing pear trees result. But the 
fruit is not dwarfed ; on the contrary, it is unusually 
large and fine, and the trees come into bearing much 
sooner than standard pears. 

CUI.TURAI, Hints. — The best soil is a moist clay 
or clay-loam soil, thoroughly underdrained. Cultiva- 
tion, fertilization, spraying, pruning, etc., must be 




A MICHIGAN DWARF-PEAR ORCHARD 

systematic and thorough. Unlike the standard pear^ 
the dwarf never does even "fairly well" in sod. 
When setting the trees, be sure to set them very 
deep, — so that the butl joint will be, say, six inches 



114 BIGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 

below the surface. If thus set the trees are less likely 
to break off at the joint (which is always a weak spot 
in dwarf pears) ; and, too, deep setting- will encourage 
the pear wood to send out some roots of its own, 
which adds to the vigor and stability of the trees. 

Pruning. — Dwarf pears need a great deal of trim- 
ming, — principally " cutting back. " And they need 
it regularly each year. About two-thirds or three- 
quarters of the new growth should be cut off annually, 
— making the cut each time to buds which point out- 
ward, so as to broaden the trees. Tall, spindling 
trees have little ' ' bearing surface, ' ' and, besides, such 
trees are more apt to blow down during heavy wind 
storms. (Windbreaks are a specially good thing for 
all dwarf pears. ) 

Insect and Fungous Enemies. — The same pests 
that trouble the standard pear, also bother the dwarf. 
Consult Chapter XIII. 

Varieties. — Only a few varieties of pears do 
especially well as dwarfs. 

ly. T. Yeoinans, whose dwarf-pear orchard is about fifty years 
old, expresses a decided preference for the Duchess variety. 

I,. H. Bailey, New York, says that the most successful 
kinds are Duchess, Anjou, I^ouise Bonne, Manningr's Elizabeth 
and Clairgeau. 

C. S. Mills, a Michigan grower who has been remarkably suc- 
cessful with a commercial dwarf-pear orchard, writes that if he 
were going to set another dwarf orchard today, he would plant 
six-tenths *Duchess trees, three-tenths *Anjou, and one-tenth 
*L,ouise Bonne. (I do not think this list can be much improved 
for any section of the country. — ^J. B.) 



PLATE XVI 




PARAGON CHESTNUTS 



Chapter XVI. 



NUT TREES. 



It seems to tne that a good nut orchard is worth working for. — Tim. 

The almond of commerce is the "soft shell" or 
' ' paper shell ' ' type, but the variet}- is too tender for 
satisfactory orchard growing in cold sections of our 
country. In California, etc., the business is a mod- 
erate success. Occasional trees have been made to do 
fairly well in northern and eastern states where the 
peach succeeds, but, without protection, such attempts 
are uncertain. In the South, the trees are apt to 
bloom very early and be nipped by spring frosts. 

Beech Nut. — This well-known forest nut is hardly 
adapted to orchard planting. 

Butternut and Bi,ack Wai^nut. — These, though 
very useful trees in their way, are scarcel}' in the 
orchard class at the present time. Trees are usually 
propagated by raising seedlings from choice nuts. I 
believe that more of these trees should be planted. 

Chestnut. — Now we come to a species of nut 
which has distinct commercial possibilities for the 
average American. ]\Ir. Joseph L. Lovett, of Pennsyl- 
vania, now has about fifty acres on his own farm 
planted to improved chestnuts, — mostly Paragons. 

]Mr. Lovett plows his orchard each spring and then 
gives the soil regular cultivation until September 
first. No autumn or winter cover crop is planted, 
because such a growth would interfere with the 

(115) 



116 



BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 



finding of the nuts when they fall on the ground. The 
trees are set about thirty feet apart each way ; they 
begin to bear when quite young, and are not pruned 
or sprayed — unless it is to trim up an occasional 
branch that droops too near the ground. The red 
spider leaves its mark on the foliage every season, 
but jVIr. lyovett says that he ' ' pays no attention ' ' to this 
insect pest. 




CLUSTER OF PARAGON CHESTNUT BURS 

The weevil has found its way into the Lovett 
groves. But not in foixe. There are no overlooked 
nuts, no stumps, no underbrush, in which they can 
breed ; the soil is frequently cultivated, all the nuts 
are picked up each season, and, consequently, the 
weevil has not proved to be a serious pest on this farm. 

When harvesting the nuts, they are never picked, 
knocked or shaken off. Mr. Lovett waits until Jack 
Frost loosens the crop. 



NUT TREES 117 

^' Plow a chestnut orchard deeply^''' says Mr. 
Lovett "You should endeavor, in every way pos- 
sible, to encourage a large, deep-growing root system. 
This is very important." 

Some nut-growers are taking chestnut stump land, 
and are grafting Paragons, etc., on the sprouts which 
come from stumps. But INIr. Lovett says that this 
method has many objections. 

Whip grafting is the usual method of propagation, 
but the union is not always successful. Nut grafting 
of any kind requires great skill, and the average nut- 
grower had better buy his nut trees of a nurseryman. 

Chinquapin.— A wild, dwarf, bush-like variety of 
chestnut, of little commercial value. 

CocoANUT. — There are a few successful groves in 
southern Florida. 

F11.BERT AND HAZEI.NUT. — We call the American 
product ' ' hazelnuts, ' ' and the imported kind ' ' filberts. ' ' 
Botanically they are both Corylus. Commercially the 
culture of hazelnuts has not been much of a success in 
this country in the East, and but slightly more so in 
California. 

Hickory Nut. — The shellbark hickory is as yet 
mainly known as a forest tree, but the time is no 
doubt coming when some of the finer varieties — Hale's 
Paper Shell, for instance — will be commercially 
planted. Hickories (like black walnuts and butter- 
nuts) object to transplanting, and it is not easy to 
propagate them by grafting or budding ; therefore 
they are usually grown from selected seed. 

Pecan. — This highly-esteemed nut tree is a species 
of hickory indigenous on fertile, moist lowlands in 



lis BIGGI.E: ORCHARD BOOK 

Ohio, Indiana, Iowa, etc. , and in many of the southern 
states. Commercially, the culture of this nut is not 
likely to extend much north of the Ohio and the 
Potomac rivers, says Prof. Bailey, Trees farther north 
are not apt to be very productive, and the nuts are 
smaller in size. Seedling trees seldom grow true to 
type ; therefore grafted or budded trees are most 
desirable. A splice crown-graft, on a pecan seedling 
stock, is one of the best recommended propagation 
methods. But all methods are difficult ; better buy 
trees of a nurseryman. Very little pruning is required 
after the tree is well started. Cultivation is very 
helpful to a nut orchard. Paying crops should not be 
expected before ten or twelve years. Every locality 
has its favorite varieties, some of the best known 
being : Century ; Van Deman ; Stuart ; San Saba. 

\Vai,nuT. — Our excellent native variety, the black 
walnut, has previously been juentioned in this chap- 
ter, in connection with the butternut. The English 
walnut (also called ' ' Persian ' ' walnut and ' ' Lladeira ' ' 
nut) is not suited to cold climates, and commercially 
it is profitable, in this country, in practically but one 
state — California. Specimen trees can be grown, 
however, in Pennsylvania and similar climates. 
Another imported species — the Japan walnut — is 
often grown as an ornamental tree in the East and 
North. It is hardy, bears its nuts in odd-looking 
clusters, but has little commercial value. 



PLATE XVII 



FLEMISH BEAUTY 




KIEFFER 



Chapter XVII. 



CITRUS AND OTHER FRUITS. 



There's a special fruit for et'erybody^s taste ; take your choice. 

Apricot. — This delicious fruit is like both peach 
and plum. It can be grown, under right conditions, 
as far north as western New York, being about as 
hardy as the peach and requiring the same special con- 
ditions. Borers, rot and the curculio are the principal 
enemies. 

Avocado or Ai<i.igator Pear. — Occasionally 
grown in southern Florida. 

Citron. — This is a small, bush-like tree which 
bears a large, thick-rinded fruit which somewhat 
resembles a lemon in appearance. Grown to a mod- 
erate extent in Florida and California, for preserves. 

Crab Apple. — The best-known varieties are : 
Hyslop ; Martha ; Red Siberian ; Transcendent ; Whit- 
ney ; Yellow Siberian ; etc. For insects, fungous 
troubles, culture, etc., see chapter on The Apple. 

Date Pai,m. — Occasional plantings of this noble 
tree are to be found in Florida, ]\Iexico, Arizona, 
California, etc. The dry, even climate of xVrizona will 
probably produce this fruit better than any other 
place in the United States. 

Fig. — Except on the Pacific coast or in the far 
South, fig trees are not commercially successful in this 
country. But by bending the trees down to the 
ground in the fall and covering them, or by growing 

(119) 



120 HIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

them in tubs which can be put in a cellar during the 
winter, it is quite possible to raise figs for home use 
almost anywhere. 

GuAVA. — An attractive, refreshing fruit of the 
tropics. Successfully grown in southern Florida. 

Lemon. — Grown commercially in California, 
southern Florida, etc. Propagation is usually by 
means of budding on seedling stocks (orange seed- 
lings are often used). The trees are generally set 
twenty to twenty-five feet apart. Cultivation should 
be given. Cut back and thin out the shoots each 
season. The lemon is more tender, as regards frost, 
than the orange. Some of the leading varieties are : 
Belair ; Genoa ; Imperial ; Sicily ; Villa Franca ; Lis- 
bon ; Eureka ; Messina. The fruit is picked before it 
colors, and placed in shallow curing-trays until ready 
for packing. Bach fruit is cut, instead of being pulled, 
from the tree. 

Lime. — A valuable member of the citrus family, 
although not much cultivated in this country. The 
fruit is used in making cooling drinks, and in the 
manufacture of citric acid. 

LOQUAT. — This fruit is sometimes incorrectly called 
"Japan plum" or "Medlar." It is a small, ever- 
green tree. Hardy as far north as Charleston, but 
will not fruit satisfactorily much outside of the 
orange belt. 

Mango. — This tropical fruit is too tender except 
for southern Florida, etc. 

MuivBERRY. — Not grown commercially, but every- 
body should have one or two trees. Downing is 
probably the best variety, but it is not entirely hardy 



CITRUS AND OTHER FRUITS 121 

much north of Philadelphia. New American is the 
most promising variety for northern localities. 
Russian is most hardy, but the fruit is not so good as 
Downing, etc. Mulberries may be propagated by 
cuttings of the ripe wood. 

Nectarine. — This fruit is practically nothing but 
a smooth-skin peach ; it is not so popular as the 
peach and is not much grown except in California. 

OivivE. — A commercial success only in California. 

Orange. — In California the orange industry has 
reached enormous proportions ; and in Florida the 
business is rapidly recovering from the disastrous 
freezes of a few years ago, — the centre of the orchard 
region having been moved farther south. Seedling 
groves are not uncommon, but the most satisfactory 
method of propagation is budding upon sour or sweet 
orange seedling stocks. "Trees should not be set 
deeper in the ground than they were in the nursery," 
says a prominent grower. Cut back the head severely 
and trim the roots. After the tree is well started but 
little pruning is required, — except to cut out dead or 
crossed limbs, and watersprouts, etc. A loose, mel- 
low, well-drained soil, free from hard-pan near the 
surface, is desirable. The trees need plenty of potash 
and phosphoric acid, and not too much nitrogen. 

Principal insect and fungous troubles : The rust- 
mite, red spider, mealy bug, leaf roller, caterpillars, 
aphis, and the "purple," "long," "red," "circular," 
"white," "ribbed," "broad," "black "and San Jose 
scales, are all enemies of the orange grove, and are 
fought with the usual remedies — whale-oil soap, kero- 
sene emulsion, arsenate of lead, lime-sulphur-salt, etc. 



122 BIGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 

"Foot-rot," " die-back," limb-blight, scab, etc., all 
require special treatment, if present. 

Varieties : Some of the most popular varieties in 
Florida are : Indian River ; Centennial ; Tardiff ; 
Homosassa ; Jaffa ; Majorca ; Parson Brown ; Satsuma ; 
Dancy ; King (the last three are Tangerine or "kid- 
glove ' ' varieties) . In California the Washington Navel 
orange is, of course, the most popular; Paper-rind 
(St. Michael) ; Jaffa ; Mediterranean Sweet ; Malta 
Blood ; etc, ; and some of the Tangerines, are also 
planted. Oranges should be mature when gathered. 

Pawpaw. — This tree is a native of our central- 
states valleys, and is found along the banks of rivers. 
Commercially it is of little importance. 

Persimmon. — The American persimmon, or, as it 
is sometimes called, "date plum," grows wild in 
many parts of the United States. Few attempts have 
been made, as yet, to improve it or to grow it on a 
coiumercial scale. It is a difficult tree to transplant. 

A foreign variety called Japanese persimmon, or 
Kaki, bearing larger and finer fruits, is grown in the 
far South for market. This is not hardy in the North, 

POMEivO. — Also called "grape fruit" and "shad- 
dock." A variety of citrus tree which is planted, 
cultivated, and cared for about the same as the orange. 



PLATE XVIII 

SMOCK FREE (two SPECIMENS. NOT LARGE, BECAUSE NOT THINXED) 




GLOBE 



Chapter XVIII. 



PICKING FRUIT. 



Two good fruit rules : Xez'er pick fruits when they are wet, 
and handle them like eggs. — Tim. 

" How am I to know the right season to pick my 
apples or pears ? " is a question often asked. The 
simplest method of determining the matter is to take 
hold of a pear or an apple on the tree and 
gently bend it upward. If ripe enough to 
pick, the stem will part from the branch 
without breaking. But, in addition to this 
method, the experienced grower is guided 
largely by the ' ' time of ripening ' ' of each 
variety. Each kind of fruit has its own 
season for reaching maturity ; catalogs, fruit 
lists and observation easily make that season 
known to any one who desires the informa- haxdy 
tion. The appearance of the fruit, and whether ladder 
or not its seeds look black and mature, are further 
guides. It is important to do the picking onl}' during 
cool, clear weather. 

All orchardists should pick (not pull or shake) 
their fruit from the trees if they would get the best 
prices. But, many trees are being slowly ruined by 
careless picking — the kind that pulls off the little 
spur that has developed the fruit, which if left will 
develop fruits in after years. There is a slaughter of 
these spurs in most orchards. Grasp the apple or 

(123) 




124 



BIGGI.E ORCHARD BOOK 



pear firmly, as indicated in the cut, and give an 
upward bend of the wrist ; then the 
fruit comes off with only the stem at- 
tached. No time will be lost, either, in 
thus doing- the picking right, and the 
stems will be left on the fruit — as they 
should be. 

Apples should be ripe, but hard, when picked. 
In the latitude of Philadelphia the main-crop winter 
varieties are usually gathered in early October. 





THE FRUIT HARVEST 



Pears, on the contrary, are still green when ready 
to pick. They are mature but not ripened, — the 
■coloring process should come after they have been 
taken from the tree ; this insures better eating, 
keeping and shipping qualities. 

Che;rries. — The principal points of importance 
are, care in picking the fruits with the stems on, and 



PICKING FRUIT 



125 




FOR HIGH TREES 



in not pulling the spur off to which the stem is 
attached, says T. A. Farrand, in a special report to- 
the American Pomological So- 
ciety. Throw all inferior, 
bruised or decayed fruits on 
the ground rather than in the 
basket, and thus avoid a mussy 
lot of fruit for the packers to 
cull over. Have good ladders 
and pick all the fruit you can 
from thence, rather than climb 
around in the tree and break 
the limbs and fruit spurs. 
Two pickings, with an interval between, are 
usually all that are necessary to clean up the tree. 
One of the most successful IMichigan growers, Mr. 
Benton Gebhart, harv^ests all his cherries, both sweet 
and sour, by spreading sheets under the trees ; the 
pickers then clip the fruit off with scissors, leaving 
about a half-inch stem with the fruit, allowing it to 
drop on the sheets. ]\Ir, Gebhart is far better satis- 
fied with this method than with the usual way, as 
there are no fruit spurs pulled off as in picking. The 
pickers are well satisfied to do the work in this way. 
The fruit is sorted from the sheets into the market 
packages, and Mr. Gebhart claims that he gets on an 
average seventy-five cents more for a sixteen-quart 
crate of cherries with clipped stems than for undipped. 
It takes from two, to two and a half, quarts more of 
clipped stem fruit to fill a sixteen-quart crate, than 
where the whole stem is left on. Cherries (particularly 
the sweet varieties, which are very subject to rot) 



126 



HIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 




are quickly perishable and must be picked the 
instant they are ready. Delay means loss by birds 
and rot. 

Peaches. — To determine "just when a peach is 
ready, " requires a little observation and experience. 
Por shipping purposes the fruit should be ripe, but 
hard, — the degree of hardness 
depending upon the distance the 
fruit must travel. Many expert 
peach growers ' ' go over ' ' each tree 
at least twice ; and, often, three or 
PICKING BENCH four timcs, at intervals. Why? 
Because peaches seldom ripen evenly on a tree, and, by 
the time all were ready to pick, some would be too soft 
for shipment. Peaches, like cherries and plums, are 
quickly perishable and therefore must be handled 
promptly and at just the right minute. Each variety 
has its own ripening time, and by dividing an orchard 
into, say, six kinds which ripen at intervals of about 
a week apart, the orchardist is enabled easily to handle 
one variety before the next is ripe. This 
is a great point in large orchards where 
competent help is hard to get, — spreads 
the picking and packing over six weeks, 
instead of crowding it into only one or 
two. 

Pi^UMS. — If possible, pick plums, for 
market, "with the stems on." The fruit 
should be ripe, well colored, but not soft. If rot 
threatens (as it often does) , the sooner you can pick 
the crop, the better. Don't delay a moment. Watch 
for the right time, and then hurry matters. 




PICKING FRUIT 



127 



Quinces. — A quince should be ripe and well 
colored before it is picked. Green specimens are not 
very attractive to the average buyer. If necessary, 
pick the trees several times, at intervals, so as to 
secure all the fruits in a proper condition. 



FRUIT SPURS. 

Better bruise j-our shins than your fruit. 

If possible, pick fruit during the cool of the day ; and avoid 
picking- during extra hot, murky days. 

For home use, let peaches and plums thoroughly mellow 
and ripen on the trees. But this won't do for fruit which is to 
be shipped. 

Fruit should be set in the shade 
or taken to the packing house as soon m ^g 
as picked. Don't let it sun-cook. Get ' "^^ 
it cool and keep it cool. 

Figs. I and II show two styles of 
long-handled fruit pickers which are 
sometimes used for high-up fruit. 
Fig. II ha-S a canvas chute arrange- 
ment for letting the fruit down into 
the picker's hand. 

With either apples or pears, one 
picking is usually sufficient to secure 
all the fruit in proper condition. 
Sometimes, however, it pays to pick 

the larger, more mature specimens first, and then clean up the 

tree a few days later. 

I,ook to the safety of the fruit ladders. A rotten spot may 
mean a broken leg or arm. Frequent coats of paint will preser\-e 
the soundness of the wood. In this chapter \vill be found several 
pictures of different styles of picking ladders. 

Do not handle fruit more than is necessary. The natural 
bloom should be left on. And endeavor to pick apples, pears, 
etc., before winds blow many of them off. Pick the outside trees 
first, as the inside trees in an orchard are more protected from 
the wind's force. 

Do not squeeze peaches on a tree, to .see whether or not they 
are sufficiently soft to pick. Decay swiftly follows such treat- 
ment. Expert pickers soon learn the knack of "feeling" of a 




FIG. I 




128 



BIGGI.E; ORCHARD BOOK 





peach without really squeezing it. The eye, and this delicate 
sense of touch, become trained to work together. 

A basket hung from the rovmds of 
a ladder is inconvenient to reach. Fit 
an iron in the shape shown in the cut, 
and you can then have your basket at 
the side of the ladder, in the handiest 
of all positions. A few wooden pegs 
up and down the ladder will keep the 
iron from slipping. A blacksmith can 
make it in a few minvites. And here's 
the picture of a double-basket holder 
for hanging on to a tree limb. 

Wilmer Atkinson says : " We pick all sound apples from the 
trees into tin pails, gently pour into slatted bushel-crates, and 
take them to our cool ' apple mow ' (once a hay mow) . This 
storage place has been double walled and lined, and keeps our 
winter apples until May. We do the sorting in the winter." 
(See Chapter XX for further particulars about this simple 
method of cold-air storage. — ^J. B.) 

A well-known Pennsylvania apple grower has issued to his 
men the following printed rules for picking : 1. Pick lower limbs 
first. 2. See that the ladder is pushed into the tree gentb' so as 
not to knock off or bruise the fruit. 3. Hang the kettle or basket 
so as to be able to pick with both hands. 4. L,ay the apples in ; 
do not drop or throw them. 5. Pick no specked apples. 6. Pick 
no small, green ones. 7. Do not take much time in picking a few 
little apples out of reach, — let them go. 8. In emptying, pour 
gently, as you would eggs. 9. Do not set one basket or crate on 
another so that the apples below will be bruised. 10. lyift and set 
down gently all filled crates. 11. Use spring wagon in hauling, 
avoid rough ground, and go slow except on smooth road. These 
rules are necessary for the proper harvesting of the crop. 

"When s^valloivs on the barn roofs perch, to chatter of their flight, 
irhen hints of frost are in the air, and crickets chirp at night ; 
Then co?ne the pleasant days ive love in Autnnin'' s mellow prime, 
The jolliest days of all the year — the apple-picking time. 
For the laden boughs are bending lo7v o''er all the oixhard zuays. 
The apples^ cheeks are burning red, and father smiles, and says 
Some sparkling morn : 'I think today we might as well begin ; — 
Be smart now, boys .' youUl need a week to get those apples in.'' " 



PLATE XIX 



CRAWFORD'S LATE 





ELBERTA 



Chapter XIX. 
GRADING AND PACKING. 



Instead of a careless apple, 7ve need one that is as big in the 
middle of the barrel as at the ends. 

The package that has been most commonly used 
up to the present time, for apples, is the barrel. The 
standard of size is not xmiform throughout the apple 
region. 

The New York law calls for a barrel with "head 
diameter seventeen and one-eighth inches ; length of 
stave twenty-eight and one-half inches ; bulge not less 
than sixty -four inches, outside measurements. " 

The Missouri barrel is as follows: "Length of 
barrel twenty-eight and one-half inches, with chines 
of three-fourths of an inch at :«Lk i 'i| i k || 

the ends; the diameter of the iwli^'il^r] 
heads shall be seventeen and ^T^^^^^^^wL— 
one-fourth inches and the diam- // tjli ' 'f^JE^jl^^t. 
eter of the centre of the barrel - — -^^^-^-^3lrJ^ "^ 
inside shall be twenty and one-half inches." 

The Canadian barrel for export apples is required 
by law to be "twenty-six inches and one-fourth 
between the heads, inside measurements, and a head 
diameter of seventeen inches, and a miildle diameter 
of eighteen inches and one-half, representing as nearly 
as possible ninety-six quarts. " 

The barrel recognized by the National Apple- 
Shippers' Association is seventeen and one-eighth 
inches in diameter of head, twent3'-eight inches in 

(129) 



130 



BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 



length of stave, and hnlge not less than sixt\--four 
inches, outside measurement 

The barrel should be well made, clean, neat and 
attractive. The statement is sometimes made that the 
''package sells the fruit. ' While this may not be 
strictly true, still the package, making as it does 
the first impression, favorable to the product or 
unfavorable, has much to do with disposing of its 
contents. Under no conditions should the barrel be 
undersized: it should give full measure as determined 
by law or the custom in the region from which the 
fruit comes. 

Boxes for Apples. — During recent 3-ears the 
bushel apple box has been brought into prominent 
notice. Probably the box has come to staj- and will 
continue to grow in popular favor. The strong point 
in favor of the box is that it suits the needs of the 
5mall housekeeper. ^lany hesitate to buy a barrel 

of apples who would be glad 
to get the same material in a 
smaller package. But the box 
should not be used for any- 
thing but strictly first-class 
fruit ; it will not pa}' to pack 
inferior or even ordinary 
apples in a box. The boxes 
should be neat and attractive, 
inside and out — the best that 
can be produced in every respect, package and 
contents. 

The ordinary size of a bushel apple box is 
10x11x20 inches, inside measurement. 




BOXED APPLES 



GRADING AND PACKING 1.31 

Packing House. — A portion of the bam may 
be arranged for packing fruit, or a special shed or 
packing house ma^- be erected. Some growers do 
their packing on tables placed in the shade in the 
orchard. Padded tables with sloping tops and rim 
sides, are verj* helpful aids to the sorting or grading 
operation. Endeavor to have the packing house or 
place as cool as possible. 

Grading Apples. — Three grades are sufficient, or 
rather, two grades and the cull-heap. I believe it best 
to follow the standard of size as determined by the 
National Apple -Shippers' Association, says ^Mr. H. 
H. Hume, and their remarks on quality are quite in 
place : The standard of size for Xo. 1 apples of large 
varieties, such as York Imperial, Stayman, Rome 
Beauty and Ben Davis, is set at not less than two and 
one-half inches in diameter. The standard of size for 
Xo. 1 apples of the smaller varieties, such asWinesap, 
Jonathan and Bonum, is not less than two and one- 
fourth inches. All Xo. 1 apples should be practically 
free from worm-holes, bruises, breaks in the skin, and 
be of good color, well-grown and hand-picked. 

Xo. 2 apples are those which are not less than two 
and one-fourth inches in diameter. The fruit must l>e 
free from bruises and breaks in the skin. The size of 
X'o. 2 apples of the smaller sort has not been fixed, 
but two-inch diameter apples might be included. 

The stems should be in all first-class apples, or in 
at least eighty-five or ninety per cent of them, and 
the specimens in a lot of this kind should be uniform 
in size, color and appearance. The fruit may be 
graded as it is packed. Two barrels should be set 



132 



BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 



up — one for No. I's, the other for No. 2's — and as the 
fniit is picked over, each class finds its way into its 
respective barrel. Whether this work should be done 
soon after picking, or later during the winter, depends 
largely upon the grower's own methods. Wilmer 
Atkinson prefers the latter way (see preceding 
chapter) . One thing is certain : // pays to grade 
fruit. Most of this grading is done by "hand and 
eye" ; machine graders are sometimes used. 

Packing AppIvES. — Two layers of fruit should be 
placed in the bottom of barrel, with stems down and 
as close together as possible. These will form the 

facing, for this end will be 
the top when opened. Fill 
in with the same grade, often 
shake, and when near the 
top put in two more layers 
with stems up, letting the 

FANCY APPLE-PACKING ^^^^ J^^^j. ^^^^^ ^ f^^^J -^^^^ 

above the chine of barrel. Now put on lid and 
slowly press into place, shaking the barrel in the 
meanwhile. 

Some packers place a round, corrugated paper 
cushion beneath and on top of the fruit in each barrel ; 
some use no cushion of any kind ; others use ordinary 
paper ; a few decorate the top with an edging of white 
lace-paper, in addition to the corrugated cushion. 
For filling the barrels, a small basket, one that will 
go down into the barrel, and provided with a swing 
handle, will be found very convenient. This basket 
is filled with fruit, let down into the barrel and turned 
over, allowing the fruit to run out. 




GRADING AND PACKING 







HOME-MADE BARREL PRESS 



Be careful not to press 



A barrel header, such as the stores sell, is a handy 
implement to own, Bnt if there are only a few apples 
to be barreled, it may not 
pay to buy a press. One can 
be rigged very quickly by 
using a plank or scantling 
with one end under a stud 
reaching to the shed plate 
and temporarily nailed in 
place. The barrel to be 
headed forms the fulcrum, 
the apples too hard. 

Apples in boxes : Bach apple should be put in 
place by hand — in rows and tiers (like oranges) , ev^ery 
apple perfect. The number and arrangement of rows 
depends upon what size apple is being packed ; each 
size will require a different method of ' ' placing to fit. ' * 
Sometimes the rows will need to be diagonal or irreg- 
ular ; a little experimenting, practise and "knack" 
will soon determine the best wa}' to make a size fit a 
box and "come out right" on top. Every apple in a 
box should be uniform in size. Some packers line 
the boxes with white paper ; and some wrap each 
apple in paper made for the purpose. 

Stenciling apple packages : As soon as the package 
is closed up and securely nailed, it should be properly 
marked. The box should be marked on both ends, 
while the barrel should be marked on the faced end 
intended for the top. Both shoidd bear the name of the 
variety ; the grade of apple, whether Xo, 1 or No. 2 ; 
the name of the grower and the place where 
grown. 



134 BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 

Handle fruit like eggs — with care. Don't mix 
different varieties, shapes and colors in one package. 
Don't mix windfalls with hand-picked frnit. 

Cherries. — Baskets not larger than eight or ten 
pounds slionld be used in picking. The packing 
house should have tables or frames with canvas bot- 
toms, on which carefully to lay the cherries for sorting 
into packages. The fniit in the package should be 
uniform throughoiit and tastefully faced to attract the 
attention of the fastidious, who will pay the highest 
market price. In California, sweet cherries are usually 
packed in shallow, small, wooden boxes holding about 
ten pounds, and the fruit is carefully sorted and faced 
in regular rows — stem end down and out of sight. 
The effect is very pretty, but such packing requires 
labor and time ; it undoubtedly pa3^s, however. In 
the East, sweet cherries are commonly packed in 
ordinary quart berry boxes, sixteen (or more) boxes 
to the crate. If the top of each box is properly faced, 
the effect is good ; but not so good as the California 
package. 

Sour cherries are usually packed either in eight- 
pound grape baskets, or in the quart boxes mentioned 
in the preceding paragraph. The top layer of fniit 
should l)e placed, stems down, in regular rows. 
Girls or women can do this work nicely. The extra 
expense of thus facing a basket of cherries amounts 
to about four cents. Does it pay ? As a rule, yes. A 
Michigan friend of mine does even more : He packs 
his cherries in quart boxes in sixteen-quart crates, and 
along the top edges of crate, folded down over the 
fniit, he places a narrow edging of white lace-paper, 



GRADING AND PACKING 



135 



— something- similar to the edging often seen on 
candy boxes. The edging he uses is about two inches 
wide and costs "less than a cent a crate." Then, with 
a small cluster of fresh cherry leaves placed in the 
centre of fruit at each crate end, he considers that the 
job is complete. His fruit certainly does look remark- 
ably nice, and the prices received for it are extra 
good. His name and guarantee go on every crate. 
Peaches. — Different peach-growing districts have 
different styles of packages. In Michigan, for instance, 
the favorite package for 
peaches is the sixth-bushel 
Climax basket with extension 
slat cover ; in New Jersey, 
high, round, flaring-top .bas- 
kets are in favor, holding 
about half a bushel ; in 
Georgia, the six-basket crate 

is the thing, each basket 
holding about four quarts. 
Then there are four-basket 
'crates, open - sided peck 
Climax baskets (for fancy 
fruit), fifth-bushel Climax 
baskets, round bushel bas- 
kets with slat covers, etc., 
etc. ' ' What package to 
use" is largely a matter of locality and choice. 

Peaches are usually graded into three or four sizes, 
and each size is packed by itself and labeletl accord- 
ingly. ]\Iachine graders do excellent work, and are 
often used by large growers. In the :\Iichigan and 




CLIMAX PEACH-BASKET 




SIX-BASKET PEACH CRATE 




136 BIGGLIC ORCHARD BOOK 

Georgia baskets, the peaches are fitted into regular 

rows and tiers, all arranged "just so." The largest 

or first-grade peaches are often labeled "Fancy" or 

Selects. ' ' Red tarletan is sometimes fitted over each 

basket, giving the 
fniit a pink, pretty, 
but rather decep- 
tive look. 

Pears. — This 
fruit is usually 
packed and shipped 
while still in a 
green state. Bushel 
boxes, barrels, 
round bushel or 
A MACHINE I'KAcu-GRAi.KK half-busliclbaskets, 

kegs, etc., are favored by different growers and local- 
ities. The ripening is nearly always done by the 
dealer. Grading must be done by hand and eye ; I 
have not yet heard of a successful machine grader 
for pears. Fancy fruits should each be wrapped in 
paper, — California style. 

PivUMS.— All sorts of packages are used for this 
fruit ; it does not seem to have an individual package 
especially adapted to its needs. Peach baskets, grape 
baskets, strawberry boxes in crates, etc., etc., are all 
used. Each grower has his own preference ; and, of 
course, the style of package chosen should depend 
largely upon the distance it must be shipped. 

Quinces. — Barrels, half-barrels, bushel baskets, 
etc., are all suitable for quinces. Each fruit should be 
well colored, unbruised and perfect. Make two grades 
or sizes. Use the culls at home. 



GOES r.oi.npiv hrof' 



PLATE XX 



LOMBARD 




GERMAN FRINE 



GREEN GAGE 



KtL>tV 



Chapter XX. 



COLD STORAGE AXI) MARKETING. 




After Prod ucitiK fine fruit , team hmv to sett it ; the proof of 
the setting is in the size of the f//c<77/<?.— Fanner Vincent. 

It is not advisable, in my opinion, for the average 
fruit-grower to use ice for cold storage purposes for 
winter apples, etc., — at 
least in the latitude of 
Philadelphia and north- 
ward. In Chapter XVIII 
I referred to Wilmer Atkin- 
son's cold storage method, 
and I want to say more 
about it, now. Here is a 
copy of a letter from him, dated October 3d, 1900, in 
which he gives particulars about the method : 

" On ^Monday w^e begin to pick our crop of ISIayfield 
apples and expect to have between 4,000 and 5,000 
bushels. The orchard has just come into bearing, this 
being really the first crop. Having a very large barn, 
much of the space contained therein is available for 
storing other things than hay, wheat, etc. ; so I have 
converted a mow, 25 x 40 feet, into two storage rooms, 
one above the other. It is a stone barn with thick 
walls, sufficient, with a little lining inside of thick 
paper (on two sides) , to keep out frost. I have also 
doubled the wooden walls on the other two sides, with 
felt between, and now have what I deem to be an 
admirable place to keep winter apples, — up to the first 

(137) 



138 BIGGI.K ORCHARD BOOK 

of April. The two rooms will hold, I think, my entire 
crop. Three double doors are made in each room for 
the ingress of air on cold nights, my purpose being to 
use cold night air instead of ice for keeping down the 
temperatiire. Whenever the temperature outside is 
colder than it is inside, the doors will be opened and 
the air let in ; the doors will be all closed when it is 
warmer outside. We expect, before October is out, to 
get the temperature down below fifty degrees and keep 
it there through November ; and by December we can 
easily get it down to thirty-five. Were I going to 
build a cold storage house for winter apples I should 
do it upon this principle and not bother with ice at 
all. But the walls must be tight, double, paper lined, 
and with an air space between. Heat must be kept 
out, cold must be kept in. Open the doors and let in 
cool night air ; close them during warm days. During 
the winter if the thermometer sinks to zero or lower, 
and stays down for three or four days, as it sometimes 
does, it may be necessary to leave a lighted lantern or 
small oil stove in the storage room during the cold 
snap, so that the fruit will not be frozen. Apples 
thus stored keep all their good flavor, — which is more 
than I can say for fruit stored in ice or ammonia- 
cooled buildings." 

I happen to know that Mr. Atkinson has subse- 
quently proved the truth and success of his plan, and 
I can heartily recommend the idea to other fruit- 
growers. This method will keep good winter apples 
as late as April 1st. What more is necessary ? I can 
see no advantage in later keeping of apples. After 
April, apples come into competition with strawberries, 
etc., and are not usually very much wanted ; besides, 



COI.D STORAGE AND MARKETING 139- 

the average grower hasn't time, after April, to attend 
to the proper marketing of apples — he is too busy 
with the spring work. And, too, many growers can 
not afford to pay the charges demanded by some of 
the big refrigerating plants. 

Pears will not keep nearly so long as apples, and 
are usually all marketed, green, early in the season. 
SEI.I.ING Fruit.— J. H. Hale says: "Get a good 
dealer and tell him you have a good thing. Have your 
commission man go and see your ^^ 

place. The business side of fruit- ^^^jBl^^ 
growing means belief in yourself /^^^^^^^ 
and then making those with whom /^^^*SSiFf|^ 
you trade believe in you. " ^"wM^^'^Sf 

H. H. Hume says : — " The best """"Wl^^g^m 
plan is to get in touch with fruit ^f^ ^ '-^-™ 
dealers or commission men in good markets and get 
them to handle the fruit. Hither ship to them on con- 
signment or sell to them outright. Pick good, reliable 
men ; send them good material, treat them squarely, 
and you will receive like treatment in return." 

Another good way to sell fruit is to secure a num- 
ber of personal, retail customers to whom you can sell 
direct. Or make arrangements with stores. 

In some localities and with some kinds of fruit, it 
is possible to sell the crop, on the trees, for a lump 
sum per acre or for the entire orchard. The buyer 
does the rest. 

Oftentimes buyers will buy an entire orchard's 
product, and agree to pay so nuich per barrel for firsts 
and so nuich for seconds ; or they may offer so nuich 
per barrel "as the fruit runs." Sometimes the 
arrangement is that the grower is to do all the picking. 



140 BfGGI^E ORCHARD BOOK 

grading and packing, and deliver the fruit at the 
nearest railway station or steamship wharf. 

Wilmer Atkinson's method is to store the fruit 
until winter or later, and then gradually sort, pack 
And market it during the leisure months. 

"Central Packing Houses," " Fruit- Growers' 
Exchanges, " " Co-operative IMarketing Associations, " 
•etc., have been more or less successfully operated in 
California, Michigan, Wisconsin, Cobden, 111., 
Springfield, Mo., ISIaryland, Georgia, etc. These 
concerns are usually incorporated, and the surround- 
ing fruit-growers own stock and control the manage- 
ment. Such mutual associations, when rightly officered 
and conducted, are often a great blessing to a fruit- 
growing community. Instead of, say, one hundred 
different brands in one locality — all different and all 
competing against each other in open market — there 
is (where a central packing and selling concern exists) 
just one brand. And this one brand, being all graded 
and packed imiformly and in very large lots, can be 
sold to better advantage than a diversified product. 

Well, Harriet hints that it is time for me to stop, — 
that this book is already too long. So, while she 
looks over my shoulder and nods her head encourag- 
ingly, I believe that I had better say ; " Good-night." 




INDEX 



PAGE 

A 

Age at which trees bear, . . 18 
Alfalfa in orchards, .... 77 

Almond 115 

Aphis, S3, 92, 96, 108 

Aphis, woolly, 35, 85 

Apple, The. Culture Pests; 
Pruning ; vSpraying ; Va- 
rieties ; etc., ... . 81 to 90 
Apples, cold storage and 
marketing, .... 137 to 140 

Apples, crab, 119 

Apples, grading, . 131, 132, 133 
Apples, packing, . . 129 to 133 
Apples, picking, 

123, 124, 127, 128 

Apricot, 119 

Arsenate of lead and soda, 63 

Ashes, hard-wood, • . .55, 78 

Avocado or Alligator pear, 119 

B 

Bark-burst, 91, 110 

Bark grafting, ..... 23, 24 
Bark injury, preventing, 

77, 78, 79, 80, 91 
" Barked " trees, saving, 24, 58 

Barrel press, 133 

Barrels, apple, 129, 130, 132, 133 
Baskets, packing, 134, 135, 136 
Baskets, picking,' . . . 128, 134 

Beech -nut, 115 

Beetle. 

(See May Beetle, etc.) 

Bird injurv, 94 

Bitter rot, 85 

Black knot, 93, 109 

Black spot, 86 

Black walnut 115 

Blight, fire or pear, . . 86,105 
Blight, leaf, . . 93, 104, 105, 110 

Blight, twig, 86, 97 

Blossom facts, 

16, 17, 44, 58, 65, 77, 78, 79, 96 
Blue vitriol. 

(See Copper Sulphate.) 

Bolts, use of , 77 

Bone fertilizers, 56 

Bordeaux mixture, 61,62,65, 66 
Borers, 

77, 79, 80, 83, 92, 96, 103, 108 
Boxes, fruit, • 130, 133, 134, 136 

Bridge grafting, 24 

Brown rot, 93, 97, 110 

( 



PAGE 

Budding, . . 19, 25, 26, 27, 2& 
Buds. (See Blossom Facts.) 

Bud worm, 85 

Buffalo tree-hopper, .... 83 

Butternut, 115 

Buying trees, 14, 16 

C 

Canker, 86, 87 

Canker worm, 84 

Caterpillars, tent, 85 

Cherry, The. Culture; Pests; 
Pruning ; Spraying ; Va- 
rieties; etc., .... 91 to 94 

Cherries, grading, 134 

Cherries, packing, . . 134, 135 
Cherries, picking, 124, 125, 126 

Chestnut, 115, 116, 117 

Chinquapin, 117 

Citron, 119 

Citrus fruits, . . . .119 to 122 
Cleft grafting, . . .21,22, 23 
Climatic conditions, .... 12 
Clover in orchards, . . .76, 77 

Cocoanut, 117 

Cocoons, destroy, 77 

Codling moth, . . . 83, 84, 103 
Cold storage, . 137, 138, 139, 140 

Collar rot, 86, 87 

Commi.ssion men, 139 

Co-operative associations, . 140 
Copper sulphate, . .61,62, 66 
Cover crops, .... 75, 76, 77 
Cowpeas in orchards, ... 76 

Crab apple, 119 

Crates, . • . 128, 134, 135, 136 
Cricket, snowy tree, .... 97 
Crop-growing in orchards, 

52, 53 
Crops, cover, .... 75, 76, 77 
Crotches, weak, ... 45, 77 

Crown gall, 34,35, 98 

Crown grafting, 24 

Culls, fruit, . .... 131, 136 
Cultivation, • 51,52,53,54, 58 

(see also under Apple; Pear; etc.) 
Curculio, . . 84, 92, 96, 108, 109 
Cut-worms, climbing, . 42, 43 

D 

Date palm, 119 

Dead wood, 48 

Di.sea.ses. 

(See Spraying ; Apple ; Pear ; etc.) 



141) 



142 



BIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 



PAGE 

Double-staking, ... 31, 32 
Drainage, frost and water, 

11, 14 

Drainage, tile, . . 11, 14, 77, 78 

Drop, June, 57 

Dust spraying, 65 

Dwarf pear, . . . 112,113,114 

Kmulsion, kerosene, . .63, 64 

F 
"" Facing," .... 132, 133, 134 

Fall setting, 14 

Fertilization, blossom, • 16, 17 
Fertilization, soil, 

17, 35, 54, 55, 56, 58 

Fig, 119, 120 

Filbert, 117 

"Filler" trees, 30 

Fire blight, 86, 105 

Frost alarm, automatic, . . 79 

Frost-crack, 98 

Frost drainage, .... 11, 18 
Frost injury, . 77, 78, 79, 96, 98 

Fruit-bark beetle, 96 

Fruit -bearing, premature, 

43, 44 
Fruit budding, picking, va- 
rieties, etc. 

(See under Budding; Picking; etc.) 

Fruit-fiy, cherry, 92 

Fruit-growers' exchanges, 140 
Fungicides. (See Spraying. ) 
Fungous diseases. 

(See Spraying; Apple; Pear; etc.) 

6 

■Galls, crownand root, 34, 35, 98 
Girdled trees, how to avoid, 

77. 78, 79 
Girdled trees, saving, . 24, 58 

Gouger, plum, 109 

Grading fruit, .... 131 to 136 

■Grafting, 19 to 28 

Grafting wax, 23 

Grease, axle, 78 

Ground, preparatipn of, . . 17 

Guava. 120 

Gum, 80, 91, 98, 110 

H 

Harrowing, 52, 53, 58 

Hazelnut. 117 

Head, advantages of low, 

40. 44. 48 



PAGE 

Head, forming the. 

38, 39, 40. 41. 44 

Header, barrel, 133 

Heeling-in trees, .... 14, 15 

Help problem, the, .... 13 

Hexagon planting system, 33 
Hickory nut, ...... 117 

High ground, importance 
of, 11 

I 
Insecticides. (See Spraying.) 
Insects. 

(See Spraying; Apples; Pears; etc.) 
Irrigation, 54 

J 

June bug, 93 

Jvnie drop, 57 

K 

Kainit, 55, 103 

Kaki, 122 

Kegs for pears, 136 

Kerosene emulsion, . . 63, 64 
Knot, black, 93. 109 

1/ 

Isabel, tree, 42. 44 

I^adders, . 123,125, 126, 127, 128 

L,adybirds, 73 

Lead, arsenate of, 63 

lycaf-blight or spot. 

93, 104, 105, 110 

IvCaf-curl, peach, 97 

L,eaf mite or blister, pear, . 103 
I,eaf roller, etc., .... 85, 92 
lyemon, 120 

lyice. (See Aphis.) 

lyice, scale, 67 to 74 

I^inie, ■ ... 120 

lyime-sulphur-salt mixture, 

68, 69, 70, 73. 74 

"Uttle peach," 98 

"l^ittleTurk," 109 

I,ocation of the orchard, 

11, 12, 13, 14 

L,oquat, 120 

M 

Maggot, apple, 83 

Maggot, cherry 92 

Mango, 120 

Map of orchard, .... 17, 42 
Marketing fruit, . . 137 to 140 
Marking packages, .... 133 
May beetle, 93 



INDEX 



143 



PAGE 

Medlar, 120 

Mice injury, . . . .11 , IS, 79 

Midge, ... 103 

Mildew, . 85, 93 

Moisture, coiiser\'atioii of, 

51, 77 
Mulberry trees, . • 94, 120, 121 

Mulching, 44, 53, 58 

Muzzles, ... 58 

N 

Nectarine, • • 121 

Nitrogen, .... 54, 55, 56, 76 
Nozzles, spraying, .... 61 
Nursery trees, selecting, 

16, 81, 91, 95, 102, 107 

Nut trees, 115 to 118 

O 

Oats in orchards, 77 

Olive, 121 

Orange. 121, 122 

Orchard requirements. 
(See under Setting; Pruning; 
Spraying ; etc. ) 

Oregon wash, 70, 71 

Overbearing, 45 

Oyster-shell scale, . 71, 72, 103 

P 
Packages, fruit, ... 129 to 136 
Packing fruit, .... 129 to 136 
Packing house, .... 131, 140 
Paper, for packing, 

132, 133, 134, 136 
Paragon chestnut, 115, 116, 117 

Paris green 62, 63, 65 

Pawpaw, 122 

Peach, The. Culture; Pests; 
Pruning ; Spraying ; Va- 
rieties ; etc., . . . 95 to 100 
Peaches, grading, . . . 135, 136 
Peaches, packing, . . 135, 136 
Peaches, picking, 126, 127, 128 
Pear, The. Culture ; Pests ; 
Pruning ; Spraying ; Va- 
rieties ; etc., . . . 101 to 106 

Pears, grading 136 

Pears, marketing, . . 139, 140 

Pears, packing 136 

Pears, picking, . 123, 124, 127 

Pecan, 117. US 

Persimmon, 122 

Phosphoric acid, ... 54, 56 
Picking fruit, .... 123 to 128 



PAGE 

Pink rot 86 

Planning the orchard, 11 

Plan of orchard, making a, 

17, 42 

Planting, 29 to 33 

Plowing, .... 52, 53, 58, 88 
Plum, The. Culture; Pests; 
Pruning ; vSpraying ; Va- 
rieties ; etc., . . . 107 to 110 

Plums, packing, 136 

Plums, picking, . . 126, 127 

Pockets, plum, 110 

Pollination of blossoms, 

16, 17, 79 

Pomelo, 122 

Potash, 54, 55, 56 

Powdery mildew, ... 85, 93 

Press, barrel, 133 

Propagation, 19 to 28, 81, 91, 

95, 102,107, 111, 113, 117, 118 
Protection, against frost, 11, 18 

Protection, root 35, 36 

Protection, soil. (See Cover Crops) 

Protection, water, 18 

Pruning, later, .... 45 to 50 

(See also under Apple; Pear; etc.) 
Pruning newlv-set trees, 

37, 38, 39, 40, 41, 44 
Pruning, root, . . 34, 40, 41, 49 

Pruning tools, 46 

Psylla, pear-tree, 104 

Pumps, spray, and fittings, 

59, 60, 61, 65, 66, 73 

Q 

Quince. The, • 111. 112, 127, 136 

R 
Rabbit injury, ... 77, 78, 79 
Rape, Essex, in orchards, 76 
Record of varieties, . 17. 41. 42 

Red spider, 116 

Ripening, time of, . . 123, 126 

Ripe rot, 85 

Root gall. 34, 35 

Root grafting, 24 

Root protection, . 35, 36 

Root pruning, . .34,40,41, 49 

Rose bug, 93, 97 

Rosette, peach, 98 

Rot, collar, . 86 

Rot, fruit, . . 85, 86, 93, 97. 110 

Rust. 86 

Rye in orchards, ... 76, 77 



144 



HIGGLE ORCHARD BOOK 



PAGE 

s 

Saddle grafting-, 24 

Salt. (See Linie-sulphur-salt.) 
San Jose scale, . ■ • . 67 to '/4 

vScab, 86, 98, 105 

vScale pests, 67 to 74 

Scion, and its treatment, . 21 
Scraping- tree trunks, 72,80, 88 
vScurfv scale, .... 72, 73, 104 
vSeed-growing, ... 19, 20, 28 
Self-sterility, 16, 17, 79, 82, 

92, 95, 102, 108 

Selling fruit, 139, 140 

Septuple system of plant- 
ing, . . 33 

Setting trees, .... 29 to 36 

vShield grafting, 24 

vShot-hole fungus, . • • 93, 110 

Shy-bearing, 45 

Side grafting, 25 

Slag, Thomas or basic, • . 56 

Slug, 93, 104 

Smudges, 79 

Soap, whale-oil, .... 64, 72 

Soda, arsenate of, 63 

Soils, 13, 82, 91,95,102,107,111, 113 
Sorting fruit, .... 131 to 136 
Soy beans in orchards, . . 76 

Splice grafting, 25 

Spraying, . . . 59 to 74 

(See also under Apple ; Pear ; etc. ) 
Spring setting, ..... 14 
Spurs, fruit, . . . 123, 124, 125 
Staking-board, ... 31, 32 
sSteam - cooking apparatus, 

69, 74 
Stems, fruit, . 124, 125, 126, 134 
Stenciling packages, . . . 133 
Stock, the, and its treat- 
ment, 21 

Storage, cold, 137, 138, 139, 140 

Strainers, 65, 66 

Stratification, 28 

Strawberries in orchards, . 52 
Stringfellow method, . 40, 41 
Stub, never leave a, . . 48, 49 

Subsoil, 13, 14 

Suckers 48, 49, 50 

Sulphur. (See Linie-sulphur-salt.) 
Sun-scald, 77, 79, 91, 98, 103, 110 

Sun-scorch, 98 

Superphosphate, 56 



PAGE 

T 

Tables, packing, . . .131, 134- 

Tarletan, red, 136 

Tent-caterpillar, 85 

Thinning fruit, .... 57, 58. 
Tile drainage, . . 11, 14, 77, 78 
Tillage, ... 51, 52, 53, 54, 58 

Tobacco solution, 64 

Tongue grafting, 25 

Tools, pruning, 46 

Top grafting, 25 

Transportation, 13. 

Tree cricket, snowj', ... 97 

Tree label, 42, 44- 

Tree protectors, .... 79, SO 
Trees, nursery, selecting, 

16, 81, 91, 95, 102, 107 
Trees, treatment of. 

(See under Setting; Pruning; 
Spraying; etc.) 

Triangle system of plant- 
ing, 33 

Turnips in orchards, ... 76 

Twig blight, 86, 97 

Twig-borer, apple, .... S3 

V 
Varieties, different fruit, 
16, 89, 90, 94, 100, 106, 110, 

112, 114, 119 
Varieties, nut, 115, 116, 117, 118 
Varieties, record of, 17, 41, 42 

Vetch cover crop, 76 

Vinegar, 88 

W 

Walnuts, 115, 118 

Wash. (See I,ime-sulphur-salt.) 
Wash, for borers, .... 80 
Wash, Oregon, .... 70, 71 
Water drainage, ... 11, 14 

Water protection, 18 

Wax, grafting, 23 

Weevil, chestnut, 116 

Whale-oil soap sohition, 64, 72 

Whip grafting, 25 

Whitewash, 88 

Windbreaks, 18, 114 

Wood-veneer, 79 

Woolly aphis, 35, 85 

Wrapping fruit, . . . 133, 136 

Y 
Yellows, peach, .... 98, 99 



D€C 21 I90i 



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